Tuatara
VolumeVI
December1956
Number2
Journal of the Biological Society
Victoria University College
Wellington New Zealand
By
Department of Zoology, Victoria University College
andL. R. Richardson A. E. Clark Department of Zoology, Victoria University College
The modern microscope is a precision instrument. Over a long period it has been developed to a high degree of mechanical and optical perfection; but the microscope is still only an optical accessory. Physically it enables the formation of an enlarged image. The accuracy of this image, its observation and interpretation are not properties of the machine. These are functions of the observer. Unless the observer is adequately trained in the correct manipulation of the instrument, in the observation and interpretation of the image, even the finest microscope is virtually useless and largely misleading. Instruction in the manipulation of the microscope can be given in three to five hours of carefully designed microscope drill which is directed as much to the safeguarding of the machine as to the elements of its use, but training in precise accurate observation and interpretation is a matter of a minimum of fifty hours of intensive disciplined study.
The strongest objection must be taken to the occasional use of the microscope by untrained observers. Apart from risk to the machine, there is failure to obtain a physically clear image and difficulties in the recognition of microscopic detail grossly hinder proper appreciation of the object examined.
In brief, the microscope is a highly technical instrument and unless technical training is a first aim, time spent in the use of the microscope is largely wasted. The observed facts, for which the microscope is employed, can be amply and better dealt with through the medium of the motion picture when the purpose is cultural and not technical training.
In the technical training given in biological courses at the university level, instruction in the use of the microscope has been most carefully developed and has had an influence on the design of such courses. Work with the microscope commonly commences in familiarisation with the mechanical and optical systems, followed by drill in the use of the instrument, using some stationary object (e.g. the cells of the ovary of the starfish), then moving objects (Amoeba, Euglena, Paramoecium, etc.) and the analysis of microscopic detail (e.g. the life-history of Monocystis). In this sequence, there is also a gradual approach to the facts and terminology of the morphology, physiology and life-history of cells and protozoans. At least fifteen hours are spent in such studies and this is followed later in the year by some thirty-five hours of microscopic work in histology and embryology.
This is a tradition in technical training. It establishes no precedent to be used for cultural instruction in biology. The steps to be taken in this latter type of teaching may be and should be developed along their own and proper line with real advantage to the subject and the pupil, and an economy of equipment.
The following outline is intended for initial training in the proper use of the microscope. The drill must be made the subject of constant practice until the steps are established as an unvaried routine in the safe operation of the microscope.
The Microscope
Identify the parts as follows: the mount, consisting of a forked base, vertical pillar, hinge-joint, handle or arm (for carrying); the concave-plane mirror borne on the mirror-arm; the substage mount, bearing the condenser and iris diaphragm, carried on a substage focussing adjustment which permits movement of the condenser along or out of the optical axis; the stage; the body, consisting of a barrel (with draw-tube) carrying a revolving nose-piece on which are the low and high power objectives, and the ocular or eyepiece. The ocular, objective, substage condenser and mirror are brought into line on an optical axis.
The barrel is moved along the optical axis by the coarse adjustment and by the fine adjustment systems, operated by milled wheels on the arm.
Always watch the objective from the side when racking down with the coarse adjustment. The fine adjustment is used when viewing objects, and only for sharp focussing. The fine adjustment has a limited range and must be kept in the middle of its movement.
Do not leave the eyepiece out of the drawtube. This would permit dust to settle on the inside lens of the objective.
The microscope should be sketched and the parts labelled.
Operation of the Microscope
The following steps constitute a routine which must be minutely followed at all times for the proper use of the machine and to minimise danger to the object or to the mechanical or optical systems.
The microscope must be carried only by the handle and the base, never by the stage or barrel which may disturb the setting of the stage or damage the fine adjustment mechanism. The microscope must not be inverted.
Set the microscope squarely on the bench in front of the mid-line of the observer. This permits the convenient use of either eye. The machine should be vertical, not tilted. Watching from the side of the microscope to avoid striking the stage with the objective, swing the low-power objective into the optical axis. Rack the condenser up to the stage. Open the diaphragm. Collect light by the mirror from a steady source of adequate
Figure by courtesy of Geo. W. Wilton and Co. Ltd.
View the field through the eyepiece and adjust the mirror to give a completely uniform illumination over the entire field. Check by opening and closing the diaphragm. Set the diaphragm at a comfortable light intensity.
The source of illumination and the microscope now form a single optical system. Neither may be moved without readjustment of the system.
Before examining a prepared slide, identify the thin cover-slip protecting the specimen which is mounted in Canada balsam. Gently clean the slide. Place the slide on the stage with the cover-slip on top. Centre the specimen over the condenser. Watching from the side, rack the barrel down with the coarse adjustment until the objective nearly (1.0 cm.) contacts the cover-slip. Viewing through the eyepiece, rack the barrel slowly up until the specimen is in focus. If the object does not come into view, repeat as before. To prevent forcing the objective on to the slide, do not focus down with the coarse adjustment unless watching from the side.
When the specimen is in focus, slowly alter the aperture of the iris diaphragm. Observe the change in detail as the intensity of illumination is varied. Resolve detail by use of the fine adjustment and by adjustment of the light intensity to the optimum for detail.
No two specimens or even two parts of the same field of a specimen are alike. Constant adjustment of the light intensity is an essential for the refinement of detail and as important as the use of the fine adjustment. Fatigue of the eye during work also demands occasional readjustment of the light intensity. To prevent undue fatgue it should be the practice to use each eye for short periods, not one eye continuously.
Examination under the high-power objective follows the above steps. The object is centered under the low-power objective, the barrel racked up with the coarse adjustment, and the high-power objective swung into the optical axis. (The objectives should be parfocal and swing into focus without racking up; but this cannot be relied on to protect the objectives from damage unless objects, cover-slips, etc., are standardised.)
Watching from the side, rack down with the coarse adjustment until the objective nearly (less than 1.0 mm.) touches the cover-slip. View through the evepiece and rack up very slowly with the coarse adjustment until the specimen is in focus. Resolve detail by use of the fine adjustment and manipulation of light intensity.
When work is completed, swing the low-power objective into the axis; remove the slide; place the microscope in a position where it will be safe and in no danger of damage.
When the observer has gained an appreciation of minute detail, he should set up the microscope as above, carefully focus under high power
The microscope must be kept clean. Wash off any chemicals or sea-water, and dry. The eyepiece, field-lens of the objectives, the condenser and the mirror should be kept free from marks and dust. Canada balsam can be carefully sponged from the objectives or other parts with Xylol.
Keep the machine free from dust and always under cover when not in use. Do not grease or oil. Properly cared for, a good microscope will operate efficiently for five years and should then be overhauled. A poorly cared for machine requires cleaning and overhaul each year. Proper care and periodic overhaul will keep a machine in use for thirty to fifty years. Carelessness and negligence may destroy the best machine in a minute.
The ovary of the starfish: This slide is used as part of the drill, as an example of a simple cell and as a static object which can be readily studied while attention is directed largely to the manipulation of the microscope. The specimen is a section of the ovary, 10 microns in thickness, stained with iron haematoxylin for nuclear detail and counter-stained with eosin for cytoplasmic detail.
Study several cells under the low power and identify; the cell-membrane; cytoplasm; nuclear-membrane; nucleoplasm; endosome and chromatin granules. Sketch several cells. Label the parts shown in the sketch.
Examine and sketch a single cell as seen under the high power.
Euglena: This is a slow-moving protozoan and gives an initial training in moving and searching a slide and in following a moving object.
1. Fresh Material: Using a pipette, transfer a drop of the culture medium to the central position on a clean slide. Cover with a cover-slip. Locate a specimen of Euglena under low power.
Study several specimens and observe: (i) free-swimming in which the Euglena moves by using the single flagellum as a tractellum to pull itself along; (ii) Euglenoid movement in which the Euglena moves by creeping through contraction and extension of the body.
Study a specimen under the high-power. Identify: pellicle (which may be striated); thin layer of clear ectoplasm; endoplasm, containing the green chromatophores which may have pyrenoid bodies (the paramylum bodies); nucleus surrounded by a nuclear membrane; the flagellum (often retracted), when visible arising from the short gullet which leads into the reservoir; the stigma and contractile vacuole, both situated close to the reservoir. Sketch to show these structures. Label the sketch fully.
A Simple Method for the Preparation of Permanent Microscope Slides
Parts of insects, small insects, section of dry wood, hair, fish-scales, a piece of feather, etc.
Kill and fix by dropping material into hot but not boiling 70% alcohol. Leave until cool. When cold transfer to 95% alcohol; leave up to five hours. Transfer into 95% alcohol in a watch-glass. Run in drops of clove-oil around the margin of the alcohol until the specimen floats fully supported on the clove-oil. Leave covered against dust until the specimen sinks into the clove-oil, or the alcohol has evaporated.
Clean a slide and cover-slip. Place a drop of balsam on the centre of the slide. Transfer the specimen with a minimum of clove-oil to the balsam. Cover neatly with a cover-slip and leave for the balsam to harden.
Clean the watch-glass with soap and water.
Other simple and useful techniques will be found in Tuatara, vol. V, part 1, pp. 12-21; vol. V, part 3, pp. 87-99; etc.
Useful Texts
By
Charles McCann The new zealand lizard fauna includes members of two very widely distributed, almost cosmopolitan families, the Geckos (Gekkonidae), and the Skinks (Scincidae). The indigenous geckos (there are also some ‘recent’ arrivals and accidental importations) are of particular interest, for they are the only known ovoviparous (i.e. the eggs develop within the oviducts and the young are born alive) members of the family. In this respect they show a high degree of specialisation, possibly as a result of the environmental factors to which they are subjected. The skinks are also viviparous, but this feature is not confined to the New Zealand species.
Geckos are generally soft, loose-skinned lizards with small scales and no perceptible gloss. The head is comparatively large with a moderately well-defined neck. The pupil is a vertical slit in bright light, but in darkness or very dull light the pupil becomes round. The under side of the fingers and toes are provided with special suction plates called lamellae arranged cross-wise. These plates enable the animals to climb smooth surfaces, including glass.
Geckos are normally nocturnal, emerging from their hiding places under cover of darkness or in very dull light, or, sometimes, to bask in the sun. The Green Gecko (Naultinus elegans) is an exception. It is diurnal and spends its time in foliage.
Skinks, unlike the geckos, are clothed in a well-fitting armour of somewhat large, glistening scales — they are smooth and glossy. The head is not well differentiated from the body by a distinct neck. The pupil is round at all times. The toes are usually long and slender and there are no marked suction plates as in the geckos. Nevertheless, the scales are referred to as lamellae. Although skinks are able to climb on comparatively smooth surfaces, they are quite unable to negotiate surfaces such as glass.
Skinks are diurnal and fast moving. During the day they may be seen moving through vegetation and debris, but retire to their shelters for the night. They are also common on shingle strips and may be seen gliding between the shingle, though on the slightest sign of danger they make for shelter with amazing speed.
Many lizards are able to change their colour or their colour-patterns to suit the surroundings. However, there is a limit to the range of colour change. The changes take place very gradually, so that it is not till the
N. elegans) but none are able to change colour. In their natural habitat, foliage, they are well camouflaged. Hence, Green Geckos are often overlooked and appear to be comparatively rare.
With the above exception, our geckos are able to change colour or colour-pattern in harmony with their surroundings. Accordingly, the same species or individual may appear very different under altered conditions. Some of the South Island species of the genus Heteropholis are able to alter their colour tones but not the pattern.
Skinks exhibit a variety of colour phases in keeping with growth or season, but are not able to alter as geckos do. The colours are ‘fixed’, and the change observed is due to the amount and angle of light striking the animal at different points at a given moment. Accordingly, an animal in dappled light is difficult to see, especially when it is moving rapidly.
Geckos and skinks are found in almost all parts of the world. Their comparatively small size, secretive habits and ability to withstand long periods of fast are conducive to easy transport as ‘passengers’ on driftwood or in cargo. Their great plasticity enables them to survive and adapt themselves in suitable new environments.
The family Gekkonidae includes about 50 genera and some 280 or more species throughout the world. Three genera with a total of 10 species are indigenous and endemic within the limits of the faunal area of New Zealand. Some species of gecko is found almost throughout the area with the exception of the Chatham Islands where no geckos seem to be recorded. The Common Gecko (Hoplodactylus pacificus) is met with in most places, but often abundantly along the shingle beaches on the coast. Duvaucel's Gecko (H. duvauceli) is restricted to some of the islands in Cook Strait and off the northern shores of the North Island. The Forest Gecko (H. granulatus) and the Green Gecko (Naultinus elegans) appear to be confined to the forested area of the North Island and some of its off-shore islands. In the South Island, apart from the occurrence of the Common Gecko, the genus Heteropholis replaces the genus Hoplodactylus. Some of the species of the genus Heteropholis are, perhaps, among some of the most beautiful members of the family.
The family Scincidae comprises some 40 genera with about 600 species. Only two genera with 22 indigenous species occur within the limits of our fauna. Within our area the 38° S. parallel appears to form a natural boundary for some species, so that we find different species restricted to the areas north and south of that parallel. In addition, Cook Strait also forms a partial barrier. Other species are peculiarly insular. The Common Skink (Leiolopisma zelandica) is the most widely distributed and ranges from south of the 38° S. parallel all through the area, but is most commonly found along the shingle beaches. The Chatham Islands hold closely allied species.
The New Zealand geckos, which are ovoviviparous, usually develop two eggs only in the ovaries. These eggs pass into the oviducts where the young develop until they are ready to emerge. Once the young are born the parent takes no further interest in them, and they must fend for themselves. The adults are generally very tolerant of the young and both young and old may be found living together under the same stone.
Skinks may produce one or more young at birth, as many as seven having been recorded from a single individual. Unlike the geckos, skinks are not tolerant of their young and will feed on them as readily as any other creatures they can overpower.
The period at which geckos are born varies with the species. The Common Gecko produces its young in late spring and early summer; Duvaucel's Gecko and the Forest Gecko somewhat later, about March to May; the Green Gecko is, perhaps, the latest breeder, producing its young at the end of May or early June.
Skinks produce their young about late spring onwards. Most young are born by the middle of summer. The time of birth may vary somewhat from place to place depending much on the climatic conditions.
The food of lizards consists mainly of small insects and other arthropods, but some show a distinct aversion to some forms of insect life and a preference for others. We have yet a lot to learn of the feeding habits of the individual species. Some will feed readily on plant secretions and honey (a useful food substitute for captive lizards). Geckos feed largely on flies, moths and beetles. Skinks on the other hand are more omnivorous and will feed on almost anything that they can overpower, including their own young and the smaller members of their own species. A favourite ‘diet’ of skinks is the tail of a neighbour! Skinks will also feed on berries and honey, and, on some of the islands, they will feed on the oil ejected by nestling birds, such as petrels, mollies, etc.
Both Geckos and Skinks drink water. The latter swim well and will deliberately sport in water.
Some lizards are able to shed their tails in the face of an enemy or on injury. Tail-shedding is a protective device which enables the animal to escape although it loses part of its reserve store. The wriggling of the detached tail distracts the enemy and allows the animal to escape to grow a new one. The new tail is never an exact replica of the original. Slight injury may result in a forked tail.
Periodically lizards shed their skin, or slough. With the increase in size, as growth proceeds, the skin becomes tight or worn and must be shed, just as we alter a suit! Young shed their skins more often than do adults. The exact periods at which the skin is shed and how often a year is not definitely known, but it appears to be approximately every two to three months in adults during the period when they are actively feeding.
Reptiles, being ‘cold-blooded’ animals, are largely dependent on the temperature of the air for their warmth and activity. When temperatures are too low lizards seek shelter and retire for the winter. In New Zealand
Both geckos and skinks, although of ancient lineage, still display a high degree of plasticity and, in consequence, a considerable power of variability. Their correct determination frequently constitutes a herpetologist's ‘headache’. A ‘foolproof’ key to such variable species is almost impossible. Hence the keys given below are only rough pointers — the full descriptions must be consulted for final determination of the species.
The keys have been extracted from a larger paper dealing with the Lizards of New Zealand — Bulletin No. 17 of the Dominion Museum, Wellington (1955).
Heads and feet of Gecko and Skink. Note difference in shape of pupils, scales and structure of toes. (Digital expansions marked in geckos only, top figure.) DE, digital expansion; E, ear; LM, lamellae.
Before proceeding with the keys themselves it is, perhaps, advisable to differentiate between the two families:
To Our Former Editor, Mr.W. H. Dawbin
Mr.
The original intentions of the journal have been carried out. From the start ‘Tuatara’ has held to a high level of article suited to its purpose. The achievement of the objective and the sustained quality of ‘Tuatara’ over the nine years of Mr. Dawbin's editorship bear full testimony to the capable continuous service given by Mr. Dawbin to a task often highly difficult, never easy, and having its reward only in terms of accomplishment of more than five volumes of ‘Tuatara’.
We express our best wishes to Mr. Dawbin in his new appointment, to which we know he will take the enthusiasm that has been so largely responsible for ‘Tuatara's’ success.
By
Barbara Croker The existence of microclimates has long been recognised in its practical application in the importance of aspect and contour in determining the climate of local areas. It has been recognised in the difference between sunny and shady slopes in hill country; in the occurrence of cold air drainage and frost in the siting of crops and orchards; in the tolerance of forest trees to shading and its relation to natural regeneration; and even in the choice of position for the different plants in the home garden.
Microclimate has been defined as the climatic environment of a very local area, such as the north- or the south-facing slope of a hill, or an even smaller area. It refers strictly to local combinations of atmospheric factors, which differ from the macroclimate because of uneven topography or differences in plant cover. Within the area of one macroclimate there may exist a whole series of microclimates some of which may differ sufficiently to be of ecological importance. Biologists have frequently pointed out that the climate in which plants and animals actually live is very different from that measured by the meteorologist in a Stephenson screen at 4 ft. 6 in. off the ground; but in the past many studies of plant and animal habitats have relied almost entirely on measurements of the physical factors of the environment obtained from the meteorologist.
Apart from the practical applications in forestry and agriculture, research on microclimate has been confined to the habitats of a few plants and animals. The main source of inspiration for studies of microclimate has been the work of the meteorologist R. Geiger (1927, 1942) who showed that the climate near the ground differed from the macroclimate because of the effect of the ground and the presence of a plant cover. Microclimate differs from micro meteorology since it is concerned with the local atmospheric conditions as they affect the living conditions of plants and animals, and not with the mechanics of the weather itself. The factors measured are the same as in ordinary meteorological studies, but the type of ground, the presence of vegetation and the type of plant are important in determining the microclimate. A few of the ways in which vegetation affects the climatic factors are considered below in a little more detail.
Temperature
Geiger was the first to demonstrate the steep temperature gradients which exist above the ground or vegetation surfaces, often amounting to 15° C. in 18 inches. The greatest extremes of temperature (that is the highest day-time and the lowest night-time temperature) occur at what is
Where there is free air movement there is no difference in air temperatures in the sun and the shade, but in the absence of wind the hot air formed over bare areas rises vertically during the day and has little influence on the air temperature under the adjacent shade, but during the night cold air formed over the open ground spreads out under the adjacent cover.
Even a thin cover of vegetation reduces the heating of the soil by the sun, and in the shade the soil surface temperatures remain less than the air temperatures, even in the hottest part of the day. At night the rate of loss of heat is retarded by a plant cover, and the temperature of the soil does not drop as low as on adjacent open areas. Thus because of the opposite effects of vegetation during the day and during the night there is less fluctuation in temperature under a plant cover.
Daily maximum temperatures may be higher above a plant cover than at an equal distance above bare ground if the plants are too widely spaced to shade the ground but are effective in preventing wind from blowing away the heated air. Similarly night minimum temperatures may be lower if the wind moves the air over bare areas, but does not move the cold air which settles among the plants.
The presence of plants reduces the steepness of the temperature gradients above bare earth, and the type of plant changes the height at which the outer active surface occurs. Geiger measured the temperature gradients in different types of vegetation and found that in a bed of Antirrhinums the daily maxima occurred at the upper leaf surface, but in rye was distributed down the stems; at night temperature inversion occurred in the Antirrhinums but not in the rye because the close stems impeded air movements. The latent heat of evaporation of the water produced by transpiration from the plants has a damping effect, similar to the formation of dew, which results in a considerable reduction in the amount of cooling which occurs at the soil surface.
In valleys where temperature inversion on a large scale occurs at night, a layer of warm air is formed between two cold layers. Where this belt of warm air meets the valley sides the ‘thermal belt’ is formed. This is a well-known phenomenon in mountainous areas, especially in Europe where orchards and vineyards are located in the thermal belt, to escape the late spring and early autumn frosts which occur on the valley floor below.
The nature of the soil surface has a great influence on the amount of temperature change, a sandy soil being warmer and undergoing a greater range of temperature fluctuation than a forest or bog soil. The wetter the soil the slower the temperature change, so patches of impeded drainage in an otherwise well-drained soil will be much colder. On areas of bare soil
Precipitation
In areas of uneven topography snow is blown from the windward side of hills, and deposited in hollows and on the lee slopes. Snow can be a protective cover, but heavy accumulations may break and kill plants. The boundaries between areas of scanty and excessive accumulation are often very sharp, and some plants show a strong preference for a heavy snow cover in winter and a very short growing season after the thaw. These form the characteristic snow patch vegetation usually dominated by sedges. Woody plants tend to be excluded from areas where deep drifts accumulate and persist.
Variation in rainfall in small areas is often very difficult to assess. Condensation from a local fog belt may effectively add to the annual rainfall, and local variations in topography and the presence of vegetation of different heights can cause a rain shadow effect similar to that caused by mountain ranges in macroclimates. The main differences in microclimate are caused by variations in the effectiveness of the precipitation; local temperature and humidity conditions influence the rates of evaporation and transpiration, and a plant cover shades the soil. The total quantity of each rainfall which is intercepted before reaching the soil seems to vary with the density, rather than type, of vegetation, and the amount and rate of precipitation.
Humidity
In the study of macroclimate, the relative humidity of the air is measured, but in ecological studies the saturation deficit or evaporative power of the air with its influence on the rate of evaporation and transpiration is probably more important. Saturation deficit increases rapidly with height above the ground, so that plants of different height are subject to quite different evaporative powers, and there is a sharp increase just above plant level. An economic application of studies of humidity relationships is the research on the microclimates of pests of stored products, and the temperature and humidity conditions under which these pests cannot live.
Light
In microclimates illumination fluctuates constantly. Apart from the changing angle of the sun, the differences in the time of day, and of season, and the effect of weather, under a canopy of vegetation the movement of leaves by the wind results in rapid and wide variations in the amount of light energy received at a given point.
The reduction in the amount of light caused by a plant cover is important ecologically, for it determines the presence or absence of a ground cover or plants beneath the canopy. But as wind velocity, humidity, soil moisture and temperature vary concomitantly with reduction in light intensity, it is difficult to evaluate the light factor alone.
Leaves transmit less than 2% of the light impinging on them; the transmitted light also differs in quality, depending on the type of vegetative cover. For example, in forests the light transmitted through a broadleaf canopy differs from that through a canopy of conifers, but as far as is known the difference in quality has little influence in determining the composition of the undergrowth.
The variation in the intensity and daily duration of insolation caused by the direction and slope of the land is well known. In general, however, the differences in vegetation are probably determined by the increased temperature and decreased relative humidity of the air and thus on the temperature and water relations of the soil on the slopes exposed to the sun.
Air Movement
Even a cover of low herbaceous plants reduces the velocity of wind along the ground, and a forest causes a considerable reduction. The effect of a natural grove of trees or of a planted windbreak may extend up to 70 times the height of the trees; there is also a small area of comparatively still air on the windward side due to deflection upwards of the air currents. But in the planting of windbreaks to create these conditions of decreased velocity the creation of a distinct microclimate must also be considered, including the different temperature and humidity conditions on the lee side, and an increase in the duration of frosts.
Differences in Shrub Community Caused by Microclimate
The small streams which flow out from the Western Hutt hills to the Leptospermum and Cassinia, whereas on the south-facing slopes mixed broadleaf scrub and tree ferns were dominant.
One of these gullies was examined in detail. It is about 120 feet across at the widest part, and about 80 feet from ridge to the streambed. On the south-facing slope Coprosma robusta and Melicytus ramiflorus (mahoe)
Brachyglottis repanda (Rangiora), Nothopanax arboreum (fivefinger) and Macropiper excelsum. On the north-facing slope there is a mixed shrub community on the lower part, and on the upper part a pure stand of Leptospermum scoparium (manuka) with a ground cover of grasses and weeds, such as Dactylis glomerata (cocksfoot), Holcus lanatus and Hypochaeris radicata (cat's ear). This difference in plant community on the two slopes was first thought to be due to differences in the dates of fires and the number of fires on each area, but the same pattern of distribution was found repeated in other valleys along these hills.
Fortnightly readings of the climatic factors showed consistent differences large enough to be recorded with ordinary meteorological instruments. The temperature on the north-facing slope is 5-10° F. higher during the winter and 15-20° during the summer. Rain gauges collected and retained ½ in. to 2 ½ in. more rain on the south slope, which is sheltered from the prevailing north-west winds but not from the rain-bearing southerly winds. The north-facing slope is partially sheltered from the north winds by a belt of pines, as well as being sheltered from the southerly winds. The relative humidity on the north-facing slope was 15-20% lower than on the opposite slope, and on sunny days 5-10% lower than in the open. Isolated readings of the rate of evaporation on still days gave values 8-10 times that for the south-facing slope.
The soil on these steep slopes is a skeletal soil developed from greywacke, and small surface slips are a common feature especially on the south-facing slope where the soil is damp. Small pockets of soil and litter are accumulated between large rock fragments. On the north -facing slope the soil is compacted into a hard dry surface on which little litter is accumulated and run-off is very rapid.
The most noticeable difference between these two slopes was the incidence of sunlight in the winter months. In summer the north-facing slope is in the sun for most of the day; in the winter, however, the area covered in Leptospermum scoparium is the only part in the sun. In June, July and part of August the sun's rays are almost at right angles to the slope and the ground receives the maximum heat from the sun. It is suggested that it is this incidence of winter sunlight which controls the dominance of manuka, a plant which tolerates rather dry conditions. It is not the light, but the heat of the sun which causes a higher temperature, lower relative humidity and thus an increase in the rates of evaporation and transpiration, and therefore a lower amount of available soil moisture. Shelter from the rain-bearing winds increases the dryness of this north-facing slope.
Literature Cited
Geiger. R., 1927 — ‘Das Klima der Nodennaben Luftschicht.’ (Revised 1942.) ‘The Climate near the Ground’, an English translation by M. N. Stewart and others, 1950.
By
Department of Zoology, Victoria University College, Wellington
andPatricia M. Ralph J. C. Yaldwyn Department of Zoology, Victoria University College, Wellington
Introduction
This paper is a guide to the commoner seafloor animals to be found in the area surrounding the Portobello Marine Station, and is written with two objectives in mind. It is designed, firstly, to give a quick source of general information to the specialist wishing to make detailed ecological studies of the seafloor of Otago Harbour, and secondly as an introduction to the fauna of this and other similar regions for school and college pupils and those interested in natural history regardless of technical knowledge. Accordingly, scientific terminology is kept to a minimum, and as many of the animals as possible are illustrated in the belief that everyone finds it easier to make an initial identification from a ‘picture’ rather than from words.
As Otago is a shallow water harbour, specimens of the animals can be obtained fairly easily either by the use of a spade and a little digging or by towing a small naturalist's dredge behind a well-built dinghy fitted with an outboard motor. When the initial work was undertaken in 1952 by a group of senior students from Victoria University College, skin-diving had not attained the prominence it has to-day, so that all the material was obtained by the two methods mentioned above. Those fortunate enough to possess underwater diving gear now have the additional advantage and pleasure of observing the assemblies of animals in their natural habit.
The positions of the original ‘digs’ and ‘dredgings’ are shown in the map facing page 58. All the material was roughly sorted by washing with seawater through four nested wire-mesh sieves. The top sieve had a mesh of 2 squares per linear inch, the next 5, then 12, and the bottom one 16.
It quickly became apparent that animals dredged from the deeper channels were different from those dredged or dug on the sandy or muddy banks. The ‘Venus’ shell Austrovenus stutchburyi is very common in dredgings from Station 1, and great heaps of dead corroded shells of this animal are conspicuous on the north-east corner of the large sand bank lying to the west of Quarantine Island. Other animals frequently associated with
Callianassa and Lysiosquilla. All these animals and more are described below under the heading ‘Austrovenus association’. In the deeper channels between the sand banks the gastropod turret shell Maoricolpus roseus roseus is the most conspicuous shell fish, and accordingly these animals and others found living in the same habitat are described below under ‘Maoricolpus association’.
It will be appreciated that there can be no sharp line drawn between the intertidal Austrovenus association of the sand banks and the Maoricolpus association in the channels, and that they grade one into the other. At high tide, mobile animals such as fish, octopus, starfish, etc., are likely to occur on the sand banks and in the water above them, as well as in the deeper channels.
Since the original work in 1952 additional information from several sources has been obtained and incorporated in the present paper. Furthemore, although the paper is descriptive of seafloor animals in the vicinity of the Portobello Marine Station, many of them will also be found where similar seafloor conditions exist in other regions of the harbour and in other parts of the country.
Before describing the species themselves, a brief but more detailed account of the above associations and a list of all the species taken for each station is given for those who may wish to make this the basis for an ecological study.
1. Austrovenus Association
A. Austrovenus — Macomona + Arenicola (Station 10).
This association was found in the sand banks between about two feet above and probably extends below mean low water. Typically, the substratum is fine sand and mud, black just below the surface, and with low concentration of the macroscopic fauna. The dominants are the bivalves Austrovenus stutchburyi, Macomona liliana, and the sedentary polychaete Arenicola assimilis var. affinis. Amphipods, Echinoderms and Ascidians are characteristically absent from this association, while two crustacea, the anomuran Callianassa filholi and the stomatopod Lysiosquilla spinosa form charactertic vertical open-mouthed burrows in the sand.
Fauna:
-
PolychaetaErrantGlycera americana(Leidy).SedentaryHeterocirrussp.Arenicola assimilisvar. affinis Ashworth.
-
CrustaceaDecapodaCallianassa filholiA. M.-Edwards.StomatopodaLysiosquilla spinosaWood-Mason.
-
MolluscaPelecypoda(Bivalves)Austrovenus stutchburyi(Gray).Macomona liliana(Iredale).Solemya parkinsoniA. Smith.
Otago Harbour
Portobello & Environs
B. Austrovenus + Macomona + Polychaetes (Station 8).
This differs from the typical Austrovenus association as described above in having Arenicola replaced by the polychaetes Aglaophamus macroura and Aricia sp. The presence of the polychaete Platynereis australis and the gastropod Micrelenchus tenebrosus, both commonly found in the Maoricolpus association, may indicate that this should be regarded as an ecotone between the Austrovenus and Maoricolpus associations. However, the presence of four polychaetes found at this and no other station marks Station 8 collection as distinct. The small
Anthopleura aureoradiata was commonly found attached to shells.
Fauna:
-
CoelenterataActiniariaAnthopleura aureoradiataStucky.
-
PolychaetaErrantPlatynereis australis(Schmarda).Aglaophamus macroura(Schmarda).SedentaryAriciasp.Polydorasp.Axiothellasp.
-
MolluscaGastropodaZediloma (Fractarmilla) corrosa(A. Adams).Micrelenchus tenebrosus(A. Adams).Cominella(Cominista)glandiformis(Reeve).PelecypodaAustrovenus stutchburyi(Gray).Macomona liliana(Iredale).CephalopodaRobsonella australis(Hoyle).
2. Maoricolpus Association (Stations 2 to 7). Worthy of note is the strong tidal current present at Station 6.
Maoricolpus + Harmothoë + Ophiomyxa.
This association was found in the channels on a shell sand bottom varying from half to two fathoms below mean low water, and probably extends to a greater depth than this in deeper areas of the harbour. The substratum consists of a mass of broken shell fragments and shell sand, the latter characteristically including among the microfauna the minute gastropod Chemnitzia zealandica. The dominants in this association are the gastropod Maoricolpus r. roseus, the errant polychaete Harmothoë praeclara, and the small pink ophiuroid Ophiomyxa brevirima. The errant, but tubiculous polychaete Podarke angustifrons is locally abundant and is present at nearly every station. It forms tubes of sand grains and small pieces of shell. As well as Ophiomyxa, three other small ophiuroids, viz. Amphipholis squamata, Amphiura amokurae and Amphiura annulifera, are found at some stations, the former being the most abundant. Amphipods of the genus Parawaldeckia (4 species) and the two crabs Halicarcinus cooki and Hemiplax hirtipes, are present at every station of the Maoricolpus association.
Fauna:
-
PoriferaLeucandrasp., Stations 2 and 7.
-
Polychaeta:-
Errant -
Harmothoë praeclara(Haswell), Stn. 2, 4 to 7. -
Lepidonotus jacksoniKinberg, Stn. 6. -
Nereis jacksoniKinberg, Stn. 2, 4, 6 and 7. -
Neanthes cricognatha(Ehlers), Stn. 4 and 5. -
Platynereis australis(Schmarda), Stn. 4 and 6. -
Podarke angustifrons(Grube), Stn. 2, 4, 5 and 7. -
Odontosyllis polyceraSchmarda, Stn. 6 and 7. -
Dorvillea australiensis(Mclntosh), Stn. 2, 5 and 7. -
Sedentary -
Prionospio malmgreniClaparede, Stn. 2. -
Audouinia filigera(Delle Chiaje), Stn. 2, 4 and 6. -
Cirratulussp., Stn. 7. -
Capitellid—fragment, Stn. 4.
-
Nicolea maximaAugener, Stn. 2 and 4. -
Pista, sp., Stn. 5. -
Streblosomasp., Stn. 2 and 3. -
Dayschone cingulataGrube, Stn. 2, 4, 6 and 7.
-
-
Crustacea:-
Amphipoda -
Parawaldeckiasp. A, Stn. 2, 3 and 5. -
Parawaldeckiasp. B, Stan. 2, 3, 4, 6 and 7. -
Parawaldeckiasp. C, Stn. 6. -
Parawaldeckia thomsoni(Stebbing), Stn. 2, 4 to 7. -
Parambasia rossiiStephenson, Stn. 2 to 4 and 7. -
Heterophoxus stephenseniSchellenberg, Stn. 2 and 3. -
Pontharpinia australis(Barnard), Stn. 3. -
Isopoda -
Isocladus armatus(M. Edwards), Stn. 2 and 9. -
Clicaea canaliculata(M. Edwards), Stn. 4. -
Decapoda -
Halicarcinus cooki(Filhol), Stn. 2 to 7. -
Hemiplax hirtipesHeller, Stn. 2 to 5, 7. -
Periclimenes(Harpilus)bateiHolthuis, Stn. 2, 3 and 4.
-
-
Mollusca:-
Amphineura -
Acanthochiton zealandicus, Stn. 4 and 5. -
Cryptoconchus porosusBurrow, Stn. 6 -
Terenochiton otagoensisIredale and Hull, Stn. 7. -
Gastropoda -
Maoricolpus roseus roseus (Quoy and Gaimard), Stn. 2 to 7.
-
Thoristella chathamensis dunedinen sis(Suter), Stn. 2 and 3. -
Micrelenchus tenebrosus(A. Adams), Stn. 2, 4 and 5. -
Emarginula striatula(Quoy and Gaimard), Stn. 2. -
Dardanula olivacea(Hutton), Stn. 2. -
Sigapatella novaezelandiaeLesson, Stn. 3. -
Stiracolpus symmetrica(Hutton), Stn. 3 -
Xymene plebejus(Hutton), Stn. 5. -
Cheminitzia zealandica(Hutton), Stn. 2 to 5 and 7. -
Pelecypoda -
Tawera spissa(Deshayes) juveniles, Stn. 3. -
Paphirus largillierti(Philippi) juv., Stn. 3.
-
-
Echinodermata:-
Holothuroidea -
Trochodota dunedinensis Parker. Stn. 2, 5 and 7. -
Ophiuroidea -
Ophiomyxa brevirimaH. L. Clark, Stn. 2 to 7. -
Amphipholis squamata(Delle Chiaje), Stn. 2, 3 and 6. -
Amphiura amokuraeMortensen, Stn. 2. -
Amphiura annuliferaMortensen, Stn. 6. -
Asteroidea -
Allostichaster insignis(Farquhar), Stn. 3. -
Cocinasterias calamaria(Gray), Stn. 7. -
Asterina regularisVerrill, Stn. 3.
-
-
Chordata:-
Ascidiacea -
Ascidia aspersa(Müller), Stn. 2. to 5. -
Corella eumyotaTraustedt, Stn. 2 to 5 and 7. -
Pyura pachydermatina(Herdman), Stn. 6. -
Asterocarpa cerea(Sluiter), Stn. 6. -
Botrylloides leachi(Savigny), Stn. 7 -
Pisces -
Tripterygion varium(Forster), Stn. 2, 5 and 7. -
Syngnathus blainvillianus(Eydoux and Gervais), Stn. 2 and 3.
-
3. Ecotones and Atypical assemblages
Station 1. This is a shallow water station (one foot below mean low water) between a large Zostera-covered sand bank and the shipping channel and, as might be expected, represents an ecotone between the two associations described above. Austrovenus and Maoricolpus are both found, the former being more abundant. The dominant polychaete of the Maoricolpus association Harmothoë praeclara is present, as well as a sedentary species, Euchone pallida, not found at any other station. Characteristic crustacea of the Maoricolpus association such as Halicarcinus cooki and Paraweldeckia n.sp. A, are found, but two other amphipods, Paradexamine pacifica and Aora typica, also occur, the latter being common. The tanaidacian Tanais novaezelandiae was found only at this station and was very abundant.
Station 9. This station is on a bank of dead shells one foot above mean low water. The substratum consists almost entirely of a mass of dead Austrovenus shells (not a living specimen was found) piled in great heaps of shell ‘gravel’ with a little sand between the individual pieces. There is little movement of the individual shells as their exposed portions only are corroded. The atypical faunal assemblage consists of three species only, a small limpet Notoacmea helmsi, which is very abundant, the errant polychaete Platynereis australis, which forms tubes of sand grains, and the isopod Isocladus armatus.
Station 11. This station is in the shipping channel at a depth of five fathoms below mean low water, and although Maoricolpus occurs abundantly, dead shells of the oyster Ostrea sinuata are characterstic of this assemblage. A number of other molluscs are found here that were not recorded from any other station. Dead shells of Austrovenus were also present but were probably derived from the neighbouring sand banks.
Station 12. A small area of intertidal muddy silt with large numbers of dead and broken shells, including Maoricolpus and Austrovenus. A large number of the dead valves of the brachiopod Terebratella (Waltonia) inconspicua are characteristic of this station.
Species found only at Stations 1, 9, 11 and 12:
-
Polychaeta:-
Sedentary -
Euchone pallidaEhlers, Stn. 1.
-
-
Crustacea:-
Tanaidacea -
Tanais novaezealandiaeThomson, Stn. 1. -
Amphipoda -
Paradexamine pacificaThomson, Stn. 1. -
Aora typicaKroyer, Stn. 1. -
Isopoda -
Cymodoce bituberculata(Filhol), Stn. 1. -
Decapoda -
Pagurussp., Stn. 11.
-
-
Mollusca:-
Gastropoda -
Trochus tiaratus(Quoy and Gaimard), Stn. 11. -
Buccinulum littorinoides(Reeve) Stn. 12. -
Lunella smaragda(Martyn), Stn. 11 -
Notoacmea (Parvacmea) helms(Smith), Stn. 9. -
Pelecypoda -
Nucula hartvigianaPfeiffer, Stn. 11. -
Notolepton sanguineum(Hutton) Stn. 11. -
Ostrea sinuataLamarck, Stn. 11. -
Zearcopagia disculus(Deshayes) Stn. 11. -
Mactra (Cyclomactra) ovataGray Stn. 11.
-
-
Brachiopoda:-
Terebratella(Waltonia)inconspicua(Sowerby), Stn. 12.
-
The Austrovenus Associations
All the animals described below may be taken by digging with a spade in the sand or mud banks of the harbour. Species marked with an* are recorded here from Otago harbour for the first time. All figures are natural size unless otherwise stated.
Mollusca:
Pelecypoda (Bivalves)
Austrovenus stutchburyi (Gray). The Venus shell (Fig. 1). Up to 2in. in width; valves ovately triangular, rather thick, sculptured on the outside with low, broadly rounded radiating ribs which are crossed by fine concentric ridges; ribs absent on the posterior border; inside shell valves white, with a characteristic darker purple blotch; margin crenulated; animals have a hatchet-shaped foot and short separate siphons. Good eating. Maori name ‘Tuangi’, older systematic name Chione stutchburyi; frequently called a ‘cockle’ but is not a true cockle such as Venericardia purpurata. In the North Island this latter species is pink to reddish-purple inside the valves, but South Island specimens lack this colouration and are white, but can be separated from Austrovenus as the purple blotch is lacking, and the radiating ribs are thicker and more prominent. A. stutchburyi is common throughout New Zealand just beneath the surface of sand and mud banks exposed at low tide.
Macomona liliana (Iredale). Large wedge shell (Fig. 2). A fairly thick shell about 2½in. across with wedge-shaped valves. These have concentric striations and very faint close radiate striations on outer surface; epidermis very thin and horny and persists only on the margin of shell; white or yellowish externally;
Solemya parkinsoni A. Smith. The razor mussel (Fig. 3). The elongate cylindrical shell valves have the brown, smooth shining epidermis extending beyond the margin forming a characteristic and distinctive fringe; interior of the shell a dull grey-white; grows up to 2in. in length. A common species on the sand banks found buried to a depth of about 10in.
Crustacea:
Decapoda
Callianassa filholi A. Milne-Edwards. Pink sand shrimp (Fig. 4). Found in intertidal sand banks throughout New Zealand. It constructs vertical burrows down to a depth of about two feet very similar to those of Lysiosquilla spinosa, and has very small eyes, large flattened chelae and probably seldom leaves its burrow.
Lysiosquilla spinosa Wood-Mason. Burrowing mantis shrimp (Fig. 5). Found throughout New Zealand in sand and mud flats. It excavates vertical burrows which it leaves at high tide, for short periods, especially at night. The female has an irregular red band along the back flanked with dark green. the male has a sparse pepper-coloured pattern on the body.
Pontophilus australis (Thompson). Common sand shrimp (Fig. 6). This is a nocturnal species and spends the day buried in sand with only the eyes and antennae visible. At night it moves actively and in great numbers over the surface of the sand in search of food. It is white in colour, closely speckled with dark sand-grain-like flecks. Pontophilus has only a minute rostrum but differs from the other species with a short rostrum in Dunedin harbour, Alope spinifrons (Milne-Edwards), by the fact that the latter has a colour pattern of longitudinal bands of green with a slight tinging of red. Moreover, A. spinifrons is an intertidal species of the rocky shore. It is concealed by day in dark rocky crevices that may be above the water.
Polychaeta:
Errant
Aglaophamus macroura (Schmarda). (Fig. 7). Body nereis-like but prostomium of the head is more rectangular, without jaws, and with only 4 small tentacles. Aglaophamus is distinguished from Nephtys by the difference in the curvature of the gill (Fig. 8). Nephtys is also found in the harbour, and both species are common on the coasts of the South Island but not common on North Island coasts. Glycera americana (Leidy). The proboscis worm (Fig. 9). About 6in. long. Burrows in mud: body also nereis-like but with a more pointed head; cuticle very iridescent; has an extrusible proboscis about one-third as long as itself armed with 4 black terminal jaws for biting. Common on coast of both North and South Islands.
Plate I
(1) Austrovenus stutchburyi; (2) Macomona liliana; (3) Solemya parkinsoni; (4) Callianassa filholi; (5) Lysiosquilla spinosa; (6) Pontophilus australis; (7) Aglaophamus macroura.
Sedentary
Arenicola assimilis var. affinis Ashworth. The lug worm (Fig. 10). A thick-bodied darkish brown worm about 6in. long with tufts of gills on the middle third of the body. Its presence in the sand or mud is indicated by little piles of castings; lies in a U-shaped burrow so that usually the swollen head-end and the tail almost reach the surface; the burrow is lined with mucus. It is a popular bait with fishermen.
* Axiothella sp. The ‘joint’ worm (Fig. 11) [after Ricketts and Calvin, p. 290]) This worm lives in a fragile tube of sand and has a very distinctly segmented body; the head has a plug for stopping the tube when the animal is retracted. Coast of North Island but not common; first record for South Island.
* Aricia sp. (Not illustrated, see Knox, 1951, p. 78, p. 4, flg. 69.) Worm has an elongated body of many short segments and papillated parapodia. Rare. It is possible that some of the polychaetes described under the ‘Maoricolpus association’ may also be found while digging in the sand banks.
Coelenterata
Actiniaria
Anthopleura aureoradiata Stucky. Venus shell anemone (Fig. 12). A small, ½ to 1½ in. high, brown and yellow anemone frequently epizooic with the Venus shell Austrovenus stutchburyi; column straight and pillar-like when fully extended, a little narrower at the base, widening upwards to the tentacles; surface covered with small adhesive yellow or grey warts, the upper part of the column brown in colour, fading to cream at the base; tentacles simple, brown mottled with irregular patches of silvery white; the colour of the animal rarely varies. Found throughout New Zealand.
A. inconspicula (Hutton) as found in the Portobello area is rather similar but larger, up to 5cm. high, with a white column, less clearly defined warts and the tentacles olive brown barried with white on the mouth aspect. The body colours of this latter species are, however, very variable and both disc and column may be pink or orange.
Although not taken in the original digs, Edwardsia tricolor and Metridium canum were later found to be present although not common in the mud banks opposite the Marine Station.
Edwardsia tricolor Stucky. Fig. 13.) A tiny elongate anemone adapted for burrowing; colour very variable, physa white, scapus orange, grey or a dirty brown; capitulum transparent with pattern of brown and orange red with stripes of white; usually 16 tentacles but up to 24, pale buff or orange in colour. Fairly common throughout New Zealand.
Plate II
(8)Aglaophamus sp. parapodium with gill; (8a) Nephtys sp. gill; (9) Glycera americana; (10) Arenicola assimilis var. affinis; (11) Axiothella sp., head, oral view; (11a) Axiothella sp. head, side view; (11b) Axiothella sp. anal rosette and cirri; (12) Anthopleura aureoradiata; (13) Edwardsia tricolor; (14) Metridium canum.
Metridium canum (Stucky). The plumose anemone (Fig. 14). A much larger anemone (up to 15cm.) than either of the above with a well developed adherent base but often so deeply buried in sand or mud that it does not appear to be attached. Column soft and thin-walled and colour merges from a dull grey-green at the mouth end to almost white at the base. Disc same colour as upper part of column. Tentacles very numerous and tapering to a point so that the animal appears to have a ‘ruff’ about the mouth. The animals prefer a dim light and only about 2 to 3cm. appear above the surface of the mud. and when covered with water the extended disc and tentacles appear almost flush with the surface; When exposed and contracted at low tide they appear as conical humps. Rare.
The Maoricolpus Association
Mollusca:
Gastropoda (Sea Snails)
Maoricolpus roseus roseus (Quoy and Gaimard). Turret shell (Fig. 15). A reddish-brown, faintly marbled with dark-brown, sharply pointed shell, when fully grown about 1½in. to 2in. in length; animal brown spotted with black, with whitish tentacles and a yellow or greenish foot; operculum closing shell mouth is thin and horny. Of widespread occurrence in both North and South Island waters. Vast beds are found in Auckland harbour and there is every indication that similar beds are present in Dunedin harbour. These shell fish live from low tide down to moderately deep water. Older name, Turritella rosea. Maori name, ‘kukukuroaroa’.
Stiracolpus symmetricus (Hutton). (Fig. 16.) A smaller turret shell than M. roseus, about ¾in. in height; may be dark bluish, greenish black, or purplish in colour. Inside walls of the shell reflect the light like an opal. It is found throughout New Zealand and lives mostly on seaweeds at low tide level.
Micrelenchus tenebrosus (A. Adams). One of the opal shells (Fig. 17). A small conical shell about ½in. to ¾in. in height; may be dark bluish, greenish black, or purplish in colour. Inside walls of the shell reflect the light like an opal. It is found throughout New Zealand.
Thoristella chathamensis dunedinensis (Suter). Top shell (Fig. 18). Another small conical shell about the same size at M. tenebrosus. As indicated in the name, Otago harbour has a variety of its own and this differs from other varieties in not having a keel on the last twist of the shell and is greenish-brown with indistinct oblique olive-black stripes, whereas other varieties are white, buff, or pinkish and have a keel on the last twist. Older name Trochus c. dunedinensis. Trochus tiaratus Quoy and Gaimard. Pearly shell (Fig. 19). A small, shiny shell about ¾in. in height with a sharp apex and almost flat base; whitish to greyish green finely chequered with reddish-brown, but if outer surface of shell is eroded these lines may appear lemon-yellow; 5 to 5½ whorls with 5 to 8 beaded spiral bands on the last but one whorl. Maori name ‘mimiti’; coasts of both North and South Islands; very similar to Thoristella c. dunedinensis.
Zediloma (Fractarmilla) corrosa (A. Adams). Mud-flat top shell (Fig. 20). A small South Island species common on mud-flats; conical shell about ¾in. in height, dark purple in colour overlaid by a more or less yellowish-white layer that
Plate III
(15) Maoricolpus roseus; (16) Stiracolpus symmetricus; (17) Micrelenchus tenebrosus; (18) Thoristella chathamensis dunedinensis (19) Trochus tiaratus; (20) Zediloma corrosa; (21) Cominella glandiformis; (22) Xymene plebejus; (23) Sigapatella novaezelandiae; (24) Chemnitzia zelandica; (25) Emarginula striatula; (26) Notoacmea helmsi; (27) Tawera spissa; (28) Mactra ovata.Monodonta corrosa.
Cominella (Cominista) glandiformis (Reeve). Whelk (Fig. 21). A very common intertidal mud-flat and shallow water form throughout New Zealand; an active carnivorous species, feeds on Austrovenus by boring a hole through the shell, extending the proboscis through the hole, and rasping out the fleshy tissues within; shell small and ovate, fairly thick, brown or purplish, coated with green or grey; aperture dark brown within; outer lip yellowish; 7 to 8 whorls.
Xymene plebejus (Hutton). (Fig. 22.) A small, thick, fusiform shell about ½in. in height, dark brown in colour outside, and inside aperture brownish-purple, sometimes white with brownish bands; outer lip of aperture crenulated; 6 whorls to the shell, the last being by far the largest; all the whorls ornamented with brown spiral ribs. A common intertidal species throughout New Zealand on mud and sandy flats and under rocks.
Sigapatella novaezelandiae (Quoy and Gaimard). Circular slipper shell (Fig. 23). A rounded convex shell with 3 to 4 whorls, the last very large; dark green to brown outside and white inside with a brown or violet large spot near the centre; well marked flattish growth lines; shell about 1¼in. in diameter; easily distinguished from other shells commonly called slipper shells, Zeacrypta monoxyla and Maoricrypta costata, by its circular shape, as these latter are elongate and rather limpet-like. S. novaezelandiae is common throughout New Zealand.
Chemnitzia zealandica (Hutton). (Fig. 24.) A minute turret-shaped shell about ¼in. in height: white, and semi-transparent, conspicuously marked with numerous vertical riblets; 8 slightly convex whorls. Common in shell sand throughout New Zealand.
Limpets. Gastropods with simple cap-like shell which protect themselves against drying out by clamping the shell firmly down on to the surface of the substratum. Emarginula striatula (Quoy and Gaimard). Slit limpet (Fig. 25). So called, because of the easily seen slit in the anterior border; grey-green in colour, about an inch long; shell ovate-conic, rather fragile with crenulate margin and prominent growth ridges. Common throughout New Zealand.
Notoacmea helmsi (A. Smith). Yellow-edged limpet (Fig. 26). A small cap-shaped shell about ½in. long with almost smooth bluish-grey upper surface ornamented with numerous radiating reddish-black lines; inside greenish, but with white central area with a few reddish spots and a narrow yellow border marked all round with dark red rays. Throughout New Zealand.
Pelecypoda (Bivalves)
Tawera spissa (Deshayes). Morning star shell (Fig. 27). Another small shell about lin. in length marked with conspicuous reddish-brown radiate bands with zig-zagging lines across them. ‘Tawera’ is the Maori name for Venus the morning star. Common on sandy beaches throughout New Zealand.
Mactra (Cyclomactra) ovata Gray. Oval trough shell (Fig. 28). Lives buried in soft mud within harbours and estuaries; the shell valves are very thin and fragile, up to 2½in. in length. Common throughout New Zealand.
Ostrea sinuata Lamark. Mud oyster or Stewart Island oyster. May be slightly attached by the left valve or free; right valve flat, somewhat convex; shell greyish-brown outside and yellowish- or greenish-white within; both valves with concentric lamellae; about 3½in. x 3in. Found in both islands but most extensive beds occur in Foveaux Strait.
Amphineura. Chitons or coat of mail shells, named from the character of the shell which is made up of 8 overlapping plates held in place by an encircling muscular girdle.
Cryptoconchus porosus (Burrow). (Fig. 29.) A handsome, large species (up to
Acanthochiton zelandicus Quoy and Gaimard. Bristle chiton (Fig. 30). A medium-sized chiton about 1½in. in length, olive green in colour but the colour is rather variable; the most conspicuous feature is the prominent tufts of glassy spicules embedded in the leathery girdle. It is the only common chiton in Otago harbour with these bristle tufts. Throughout New Zealand.
Terenochiton otagoensis Iredale and Hull. A tiny chiton distinguished from the other two species common in dredgings from the harbour, not only by its size, which is not greater than ½in., but by the fact that the valves of the shell lack insertion plates; known only from the southern third of the South Island and Stewart Island.
Cephalopoda. Octopuses and squids, etc. Soft-bodied molluscs in which the shell is often internal in the form of a ‘pen’ or ‘cuttle bone’.
Robsonella australis (Hoyle). The common small shore octopus (Fig. 31). Mantle length up to 1½in.; total length about 4in.; head rather wide; red-brown in colour; another species, R. huttoni, is larger with the mantle up to 2½in. in length and the head narrower; known only from southern New Zealand and the Auckland Is. The larger common octopus found in rock pools and down to moderate depths is Octopus maorum. Robsonella is distinguished from Octopus on the structure of the hectocotylous arms, i.e. a modified pair of arms in the male; in Robsonella the enlarged tip is pear-shaped with a smooth median groove, while in Octopus the tip is elongate-oval with transverse ridges in the groove. Both species feed on shell-fish, particularly Austrovenus.
Brachiopoda. Lamp shells. So called because the bivalve shell is shaped like an ancient Roman lamp. The whole group is itself old, being known from the Palaeozoic era.
Terebratella (Waltonia) inconspicua (Sowerby). (Fig. 32). Is a small, red, smooth-shelled brachiopod up to ¾in. in diameter; found throughout New Zealand mostly below low tide level, fastened to rock or other solid objects. Dead shells are fairly common at Station 12.
Echinodermata:
Asteroidea (Starfish)
Asterina regularis Verrill. Cushion star (Fig. 33). The common New Zealand intertidal pentagonal-shaped starfish. Very variable in colour on the upper side, grey-green or dark blue-green, but may be yellow or orange or any of these as a base colour blotched with one of the others. Large ones are 3in. across; arms not clearly marked off from the central disc; covered above and below with clusters of minute spinelets; groove for tube feet, narrow and slit-like.
* Coscinasterias calamaria (Gray). Spiny star (Fig. 34). Clearly distinct from Asterina as the arms are marked off from the disc and from 6 to 11 in number but usually 11; arms commonly of unequal size owing to regeneration; both the arms and the disc have prominent spines and each spine surrounded by clustered ‘pedicellariae’; spines on upper surface stouter than on foot grooves but equal
Astrostole scabra, New Zealand's largest starfish, but this latter species usually has only 7 arms though specimens with 6 and 8 are known. Further distinguished from Coscinasterias as the spines on the foot grooves are larger than on the arms: also A. scabra is not known south of Akaroa.
* Allostichaster insignis (Farquhar). (Fig. 35.) Rather like Coscinasterias and Astrostole, but has only 6 arms. Characteristed by its capacity to divide transversely into halves so that specimens with 3 arms and others with 3 small arms and 3 normal-sized arms are frequently found. Widely distributed throughout New Zealand.
Ophiuroidea (Brittle stars). Usually 5 arms, and these in general more clearly marked off from the disc than in starfish; no tube feet; among the most numerous of all sea-floor dwelling animals; most are scavengers.
* Amphiura amokurae Mrtsn. (Fig. 36). Both disc and arms have plates; a greyish brittle-star with arms about 1½in. in length and disc about ½in. across; the spines on the arms are flattened; low tide level throughout New Zealand from North Cape to Auckland Is., but nowhere common.
*Amphiura annulifera Mrtsn. A smaller species than the above with arms about ½in. in length and disc about ⅛in. across; white with a brownish ring round the mouth; spines not flattened; viviparous, i.e. carries its young in pouches, the opening of which are on the lower surface; found mostly at low-tide level and below. Rare.
The New Zealand brittle star fauna has a high proportion of species of the F. Amphiuridae and species of the genus Amphiura are difficult to separate out. Species other than the above may be found in the harbour and caution should be exercised in identification (cf. Fell, 1949, p. 125).
* Ophiomyxa brevirima H. L. Clark. (Fig. 37.) Brittle star with upper surface of disc quite smooth; arms spiny; disc purple brown with irregular blotches of darker colour; arms banded with alternating bars of fawn and chocolate, light brown fawn below; disc up to lin. across; arms lin. to 2in. in length; found from low tide level down to 25 fathoms and appears to be the commonest brittle star in the harbour and throughout New Zealand.
* Amphipholis squamata (Delle Chiaje). (Fig. 38.) A small brittle star with scales on the disc, and arms with plates; grey in colour, and arms about 7/10in. long; common in rock pools, among coralline seaweeds or in sand. Common throughout New Zealand.
Also possibly present Ophionereis fasciata (Hutton), larger brittle star than any of the above and about 5in. in overall width; colour a marbled combination of black, grey, brown and fawn mottling and banding; would be found under stones that rest on sand or gravel.
Plate IV
(29) Cryptoconchus porosus; (30) Acanthochiton zelandicus; (30a) Two shell valves of a chiton; (31) Robsonella australis; (32) Terebratella inconspicua; (33) Asterina regularis.
Holothuroidea (Sea cucumbers). Elongate, worm-like echinoderms with cylindrical or 5-sided fleshy body supported by scattered internal spicules; circlet of tentacles round the mouth.
Trochodota dunedinensis Parker. (Fig. 39.) Common occurrence in the harbour; worm-like without tube feet; thin pinkish body-wall with reddish spots at the ends; up to 2in. in length when fully expanded; fiinger-like tentacles round the mouth. Another intertidal species, T. dendyi, is much larger, up to 6in. in length, white in colour with faint purplish tint. Common throughout New Zealand.
Crustacea:
Brachyura (Crabs). Crustacea in which the abdomen is greatly reduced, shorter than the cephalothorax and permanently flexed underneath it.
Halicarcinus cooki (Filhol). (Fig. 40) Found among Zostera and seaweeds; about ⅓in. in width; anterior marginal tooth rounded, posterior just below margin and about halfway down the back sharp and spine-like; rostrum with 3 fairly prominent lobes; digits of the chela fully dentate; back very flat and sharp-edged. Common throughout New Zealand.
Hemiplax hirtipes Heller. (Fig. 41.) A larger crab than H. cooki, also from mud-flats and Zostera beds; drab mud-colour, about lin. across with 3 prominent spine-like teeth on the anterior lateral margin; sides of the body are almost straight, giving the back a square effect. An active and very aggressive little crab. Very closely resembles Helice crassa, the tunnelling mud crab also known from Otago harbour and which is approximately the same size but is distinct in having the eye stalks equal to the front margin in length.
It is quite likely that dredging or a flounder net may take two swimming crabs abundant in the harbour, namely Nectocarcinus antarcticus Jacquinot and Lucas (the rough swimming crab) and Ovalipes bipustulatus Milne-Edwards (the smooth swimming crab). The back legs of these crabs are flattened and paddle-like. Both are active. and rather pugnacious crabs, particularly O. bipustulatus which partly crawls, partly swims, carrying the sharp chelae in raised attitude ready for action. They are very alike in general appearance but N. antarcticus has 4 antero-lateral spine-like teeth and O. bipustulatus has 5. Fig. 42 shows the difference in their paddle-like back legs.
Macrura (Shrimps and crayfish)
Periclimenes (Harpilus) batei Holthuis. (Fig. 43.) This is a common, almost transparent shrimp found below low-tide level and on a sandy sea-floor. It is a nocturnal species similar in appearance to Palaemon affinis Milne-Edwards, the common harbour shrimp which is primarily an intertidal form of rock or sand-floor pools. Both species have a long, sharp rostrum, but the latter has a colour pattern of wavy green, red or black bands.
Although not taken in the dredge, the common crayfish Jasus lalandii M.-Edwards is a fairly abundant sea-floor animal in the vicinity of the Marine Station. Further information on the species can be found in Thomson and Anderton (1921, p. 106).
Plate V
(34) Coscinasterias calamaria; (35) Allostichaster insignis (young animal); (36) Amphiura amokurae; (37) Ophiomyxa brevirima; (38) Amphipholis squamata.
All the tanaidaceans. isopods and amphipods described below are very typical of the fauna to be expected from the harbour and the Dunedin coastal area anywhere from shoreline down to 100 fathoms and may be taken either from a sandy sea floor, sand banks, or from washings of mud and debris from the bases of clumps of seaweed, or amongst polyzoans growing on Pyura stalks.
Tanaidacea (Fig. 44). A small group of marine or brackish water crustaceans, recognisable by their long, slender, cylindrical body and the pair of very stout gnathopods under the head which are as large and obvious as the head itself. Exemplified in present collection by Tanais novaezealandiae
Isopoda. Pill bugs. (Fig. 45.)
Isocladus armatus (M.-Edwards). Pill bug isopod. Male readily identifiable, has smooth greyish ovate body with long spine on the 7th thoracic segment which reaches back over the abdomen as far as end of pleotelson; wide uropod fans; female of same general shape without distinctive spine and likely to be confused with other genera. Very common in Dunedin harbour and Blueskin Bay area. Cymodoce bituberculata (Filhol). Body somewhat as in Isocladus but thorax lacks spine; pleotelson has 2 rounded bosses.
Cilicaea caniculata (Isocladus but uropods strong and produced in heavy furred fork either side of pleotelson; abdomen with heavy medial furred blunt spine; furring gives animal a rather dirty appearance; a common species in the harbour and around Dunedin coasts.
Amphipoda. Sand hoppers (Fig. 46). Many of the amphipods collected belong to the Family Lysianassidae members of which are characterised by a short stout 1st antenna and by comparatively deep side plates tending to cover the legs partly or entirely. The commonest members of the family found in the harbour are species of Parawaldeckia, most of which have not yet been described in literature. All the species of Parawaldeckia, are small, about 5-7mm. when mature, with compact body, usually white in colour and with black kidney-shaped eyes.
Paravaldeckia thomsoni (Stebbing). Characterised by having the hind corner of the third epimeral plate produced backwards as a short sharp spine.
* Parawaldeckia species A. Eyes large; basal segment of 5th limb oval, almost as wide proximally as distally; telson entire, without spines; side plate of 5th segment much larger than the basal segment of 5th limb.
* Parawaldeckia species B. Telson emarginate; basal segment of 5th limb is pear shaped, widest distally and quite narrow proximally.
* Parawaldeckia species C. Like species A but telson emarginate, spined, sideplate of 5th segment as deep as basos but no larger.
Parambasia rossii Stephenson. Another small species up to 7mm. in length, rather like Parawaldeckia but peduncle of 1st antenna particularly stout; black
Plate VI
(39) Trochodota dunedinensis; (40) Halicarcinus cooki; (41) Hemiplax hirtipes; (42) Nectocarcinus antarcticus; (42a) Ovalipes bipustulatus; (43) Periclimenes batei; (44) Tanaidacean; (45) Isopod; (46) Amphipod; (47) Caprella sp.
* Parambasia species A. Translucent in colour, with cherry-red blotch in middle of body, generally lacking in pigment where P. rossii is pigmented, and vice versa; very small, about 2mm.; taken in washings from red alga Ceramium. Heterophoxus stephenseni Schellenberg and Pontharcarpinia australis (Barnard) are small species from 6-10mm., closely allied and characterised especially by a large rostral hood over the head, eyes, and bases of the antennae, and by very setose and spined limbs; to determine the species see Hurley (1954), T. Roy. Soc. N.Z. 81 (4): 579-599.
Paradexamine pacifica (
Aora typica Kroyer. A translucent species with 4th segment of first limb in male directed downwards along 5th in long strong spinal process. Cosmopolitan.
Lembos philacantha (Stebbing) Like Aora but first limb lacks the spines of the 4th segment; antennae and 7th limb especially long; body smooth.
Caprella sp. Skeleton shrimp (Fig. 47). A slender elongate amphipod modified for living amongst weed; head fused with first body segment so that no more than 6 articulated segments are apparent; abdominal segments usually all fused and the abdomen as a whole reduced to a small knob. Common in Otago harbour.
Polychaeta:
Errant
* Lepidonotus jacksoni Kinberg. Scale worm (Fig. 48). Animal has short, broad body up to 2.4cm. in length, not tapered; the back covered with 12 pairs of scales (elytra) which are fringed on the upper margin, pale brown in colour and with a varying number of roundish tubercles on the surface; found throughout New Zealand more especially below low tide and in sandy and muddy areas; could be confused with L. polychromus which also has the elytra fringed but the latter species is much more widely distributed intertidally under stones and among algae and has only a slight swelling on the dorsal cirrus of the parapodium and no black pigment as in L. jacksoni.
Harmothoë praeclara (Haswell). Another scale worm very similar to Lepidonotus but with 15 pairs of elytra and the lateral tentacles inserted ventrally not subterminally as in Lepidonotus. Common on coast of South Island.
* Nereis jacksoni Kinberg. Rag worm (Fig. 49). A small, narrow, cylindrical worm about 30mm. in length and 2mm. wide; about 75 segments all alike except at the extreme anterior and posterior ends, and each bearing a pair of laterally
Plate VII
(48) Lepidonotus jacksoni; (49) Nereis jacksoni; (50) Platynereis australis; (51) Nicolea maxima, animal removed from tube, and (51a) in tube; (52) Audouinia filigera; (52a) Head region enlarged.N. jacksoni is very similar to N. falcaria Willey but the prostomium is notched between the tentacles in this latter species, and it is widespread throughout New Zealand from the intertidal region down to 55 fathoms.
* Neanthes cricognatha (Ehlers). A nereis-like worm which builds semipermanent tubes, usually in areas where there is an admixture of sand and firm mud; of predaceous habit, aggressive and carnivorous; up to 70mm. long and 4mm. broad; prostomium slightly longer than broad, broadly rounded anteriorly and ill defined marginally; tentacles short; eyes large; palps short; intertidal down to 55 fathoms. Known from coasts of both North and South Islands but does not appear to be of common occurrence.
Platynereis australis (Schmarda). (Fig. 50.) A large, nereid-like worm up to 200mm. long and 5mm. wide and with about 150 segments; forms tubes of sand grains and pieces of shell; prostomium longer than broad; tentacles equal in length to the prostomium; palps longer than tentacles; eyes moderately large; tentacular cirri long; surface of body conspicuously iridescent, dark pink in general colour and with a prominent dorsal blood vessel. Common throughout New Zealand.
Podarke angustifrons (Grube). A tiny, slender, nereid-like worm about ½in. in length and with about 40 parapodial bearing segments; forms a semi-permanent tube of sand grains and shell; the head has 3 tentacles; gills are lacking. Throughout New Zealand.
*Dorvillea australiensis (McIntosh). Another nereid-like worm with well defined head carrying 2 tentacles and 2 cylindrical palps all of which are conspicuous; proboscis has a complex system of jaws; about 75mm. long. Common on the coast of the South Island, not so common on North Island coast.
Sedentary
Nicolea maxima Augener. (Fig. 51.) A large tube worm; tube has a membranous base covered over with sand grains and fragments of shell, and about 5in. in length; body divided into small head, thorax of about 20 to 21 segments, cream or lemon-pink in colour; abdomen and tentacles yellow. Sparsely distributed on coasts of North and South Islands.
* Audouinia filigera (Delle Chiaje). (Fig. 52.) * Cirratulus sp., and * Chaetozone sp. are all burrowing polychaetes. Audouinia and Cirratulus have long, thread-like tentacles and gills, at the anterior end of the body; the greater part of the body is buried but the tentacles and gills writhe on the surface of the sand or mud. In Audouinia the lateral gills start in front of the segments bearing the tentacles, while in Cirratulus tentacles and gills start on the same segment. Chaetozone has a single pair of large, stout tentacular palps and no thread-like tentacles. A. filigera is known only from Dunedin harbour but a closely allied species, A. anchylochaeta, is one of the commonest polychaetes on the New Zealand coast; Cirratulus sp. and Chaetozone sp. are rare.
Urochordata:
Ascidiacea. Sea squirts.
Ascidia aspersa (Müller). (Fig. 53.) Large, solitary sea squirt about 2½in. in
A. aspersa may have been introduced when the Marine Biological Station tried to acclimatise various English food fishes and crustaceans, as it is well known in European seas.
Corella eumyota Traustedt. (Fig. 54.) Like A. aspersa, Corella eumyota is very common in the harbour on rocks in the intertidal region, and fairly common throughout New Zealand; bottle-shaped and compressed, atrial aperture on a short siphon which lies almost at right angles to the body; siphon linings and mantle are bright orange red, and this pigment shows clearly through the transparent, smooth test. A southern hemisphere species about 2in. high but giants 4in. are known.
Asterocarpa cerea (Sluiter). (Fig. 55.) Another solitary species attached either by the base or all or part of one side; body almost spherical; colour of the siphons is distinctive, maroon with 8 white internal longitudinal bands; the test is brown and smooth except on the margin of the siphons which bear many small warty processes; length up to 1½in. and breadth up to 2in. Throughout New Zealand.
Botrylloides leachi Savigny. (Fig. 56.) Colonies form soft, flattish, irregularly shaped masses on rocks, shells and other structures mainly in the intertidal region but also a little deeper. Test is semi-transparent; zooids purplish-red, with yellow or white spots round the branchial apertures; general appearance purplish spotted with white or yellow. Zooids arranged in elongate or circular systems about a common aperture. Colonies up to 12in. in diameter. Coasts of North and South Islands.
Pyura pachydermatina (Herdman). Sea tulip (Fig. 57). A large, conspicuous stalked sea squirt common at low-water level on rocks, piles and among seaweed; body large and oval, a little compressed with a very leathery test with 6 deep longitudinal pink grooves or all the test may be pink; young forms pale, almost white; siphons short, inconspicuous, one side formed by the body; the stalk and body often covered with other animals and plants. Body exclusive of stalk up to 3in. in length, stalks 6in. to 10in. Coasts of North and South Islands.
Pisces:
Syngnathus blainvillianus Eydoux and Gervais. Short-nosed pipe-fish (Fig. 58). Small, about 6in., slender fish with body about ½in. thick when fully grown; poor swimmer; head extends as tube-like snout with small toothless mouth at the tip; usually pale brown with blackish crossbars between the rings but colour rather variable, frequently similar in colour to the seaweed among which they live; eyes jewel-like. Common throughout the harbour and elsewhere in New Zealand among seaweed. Like its close relative the sea-horse, the male takes charge of the eggs.
Tripterygion varium. (Forster). Cockabully (Fig. 59). Another small fish about 6in. in length but with much thicker body than the pipe fish; as name suggests,
T. tripenne. Found among weeds and rocks, it is a pugnacious and voracious species and common throughout New Zealand.
It is also probable that while dredging in seaweed areas the following two fish will be taken, viz. Hemerocoetes acanthorhynchus Forster, the ‘opal fish’ with large iridescent scales, and a small knob on the upper lip: and H. waitei Regan, the ‘blue bonnet’, in which the head and body is marked with blue bands. Both fish are about llin. long.
Although not taken originally in 1952. the following sea-floor flatfish are known from the harbour.
The two flounders Rhombosolea plebeia (Richardson) (Sand flounder), and R. tapirina Gunther (Greenback flounder) are common in the harbour. R. plebeia lives over cockle beds, mud-flats, patches of eel grass, etc., in fact anything except rock; is greenish-grey above with clouded markings; undersurface colourless: R. tapirina has a very green upper surface, fins with black spots here and there; white underneath; and acute snout. R. leporina Gunther (Yellow-belly flounder), yellow underneath, is not so common and found chiefly in or at river mouths: similarly R. retiaria Hutton (Black flounder) is also mainly a river flounder, dull green above with red spots and yellowish-olive underneath.
Neither Peltorhamphus novaezeelandiae (Gunther), the common sole, greenish-grey above without markings and completely white below with characteristic large beak-shaped snout, nor P. flavilatus Waite, the lemon sole, grey with irregular but distinct brown blotches on the upper surface, yellow underneath and no beak-like snout, are common in the harbour.
Large quantities of green and red seaweeds were commonly dredged in the channels but are not described here as specialists advise that the systematic position of the majority is in doubt and that no useful purpose would be served at present in giving a tentative specific diagnosis. Also, it is beyond the scope of the present paper to describe the hydroid and bryozoan fauna frequently found growing on the seaweeds.
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to thank Dr. Plate VIII
(53) Ascidia aspersa; (54) Corella eumyota; (55) Asterocarpa cerea; (56) Botrylloides leachi; (57) Pyura pachydermatina; (58) Syngnathus blainvillianus; (59) Tripterygion varium.
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The illustrations for this paper were drawn by Edward S. Robinson, Zoology Department, Victoria University College.