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will be issued in March, 1963, and will include
In an earlier article on the Pogonophora (Tuatara 7 (2), 1958) the main facts about this peculiar and recently established animal group were reported by Fell. Since then our knowledge of pogono phorans has been considerably amplified.
Until recently, it could easily have been supposed that the extant Pogonophora comprise only an insignificent relict of an ancient group, once richly represented. Every year, however, oceanographic expeditions are yielding more and more newly discovered representatives of the Pogonophora, from different parts of the world's oceans, so that it has now become clear that it is actually a flourishing group, though comprising mainly forms from the abyssal sea-floors.
At the present time we have information on more than a hundred species of Pogonophora, of which fifty-eight have already been described and assigned generic and specific names. A particularly large number of Pogonophora have been found in the Pacific Ocean, and latterly also in the Indian Ocean. They have also been discovered in the Atlantic, off the coasts of Europe, Africa and America, off the coasts of Antarctica, and in the Arctic. Not long ago pogonophorans were also found in the Norwegian fiords (Brattstrom and Fouchald, 1961), and even in the Mediterranean Sea.
The Pogonophora typically inhabit the abyssal zone, but many species are also met with in comparatively shallow regions. About Professor
60 per cent of the species are encountered at depths exceeding 3,000 metres, and about 40 per cent in lesser depths. At depths of less than 100 metres not more than twenty species have been reported. Some species are distinguished by a very wide range of vertical distribution; for example, Siboglinum caulleryi, inhabiting the Sea of Okhotsk and the north-western region of the Pacific, has been taken on the Sakhalien coast (north of Japan) at depths of only 20 metres, yet also ranges down into the abyssal zone, and even into parts of the Kurile-Kamchatka Trench, down to a depth of 8,164 metres.
All Pogonophora have a sedentary, tubicolous mode of life. The elongate cylindrical tube, which is secreted about the body, is composed of chitin (Brunet and Carlisle, 1958). Various sedentary animals are found adhering to this tube—forams, sponges, hydroids, alcyonarians, small actinians, serpulids, polyzoans, ascidians, Scalpellum, and even stalked sea-lilies. There are also encountered not infrequently the chitinoid thecae of the seyphistoma of Stephanocyphus, attached to the tubes. The localised disposition of all these epibionts shows that a significant part of the tube of pogonophorans protrudes freely above the surface of the sea-floor, more or less vertically, with the remaining, basal, part of the tube deeply immersed in the mud. However, the delicate, annulated tubes of the species of Siboglinum usually do not carry epibionts, so they are probably almost entirely immersed in mud. It is evident that in associations of pogonophorans the individuals are disposed in close proximity to one another. This inference would seem to be justified by the fact that pogonophorans have separate sexes, and lack pelagic larvae (Ivanov, 1960a).
Not infrequently Pogonophora occur in immense numbers, so they are quite characteristic elements of the bottom biocoenosis. In the north-western part of the Sea of Okhotsk extensive shallow-water expanses of mud-bottom (at depths of 90-200 m.) are occupied by a dense population of Siboglinum caulleryi. In the Bering Sea, at depths of 1.400-5,000 m., Polybrachia annulata occurs, and frequently dominates numerically in the complex biocoenosis, almost all members of which occur attached to the tubes of these pogonophorans. Among the predatory species in these biocoenoses the decapod crustacean Munidopsis feeds upon Polybrachia (Sokolova, 1956).
As filter-feeding sedentary forms, Pogonophora depend to an important degree upon the quantity of food material suspended in the water, and upon the bacterial forms which develop on this material. They are therefore most abundant in precisely those localities where there are more or less permanent local concentrations of suspended organic substances, located on the sea-floor, and dependent upon the velocity and direction of the bottom currents, as also upon the sea-floor relief (Sokolova, 1956). Apparently this
Siboglinum vinculatum. A, anterior extremity of body of male, in ventral aspect. B, anterior extremity of body of female, in dorsal aspect. C, same in ventral aspect. D, portion of the tentacle. E, two pinnules. F, zone of aggregated papillae on the ventral side. G, cuticular platelets from from the zone of aggregated papillae. H, annular region in ventral aspect. I, same in dorsal aspect. J, portion of an annulus. K, anterior portion of tube. L, posterior portion of tube.
Abbreviations: an, annulus; c, cephalic rostrum; ca, capillary of pinnule; co, dorsal ciliated region; dp, posterior group of denticulations; f, frenulum; go, genital papilla; ms, mesosoma; mfs, metasoma; p, cuticular platelets; pa, papillae; pi, pinnules; ps protosoma; si, furrow between protosoma and mesosoma; s2, furrow between mesosoma and metasoma; s4, post-tentacular furrow; s5, second furrow of mesosoma; sv, ventral furrow; t, tentacle; vl, lateral vessel of head region, translucent through integument.
It seems dubious whether pogonophorans can vacate the tube, for they are not adapted for locomotion outside it. However, they are able to move rapidly within the tube, so as to extrude the anterior extremity of the body from the tube, together with the tentacles, or to withdraw deeply within the tube. In this respect they resemble sedentary tubicolous polychaets, to which they present superficial resemblances, caused by an identical mode of life. The length of the tube is always considerable. It exceeds the length of the animal itself, and thus does not impede movement of this kind. Numerous attachment papillae, with their chitinous platelets (illustrated in the figures herewith), serve for the support of the animal on the internal surface of the tube. A well-developed longitudinal musculature in the body-wall indicates that pogonophorans have a considerable capacity for extension and contraction. Extension of the anterior extremity of the body from the tube is aided by the fine denticu lations on the annular girdles (see figures). Upon stimulation, or danger, the animal instantly vanishes into the depths of the tube, by means of a simple contraction of the longitudinal musculature; and of course, the firm grip exerted by the girdles facilitates this “flight reaction’. Similar inferences are confirmed by the histological data namely, the presence of elongate giant nerve-fibres, these apparently subserving the rapid mediation of impulses to the longitudinal musculature of the contractile part of the trunk region (Ivanov, 1959).
As Fell has already reported in the pages of Tuatara, pogono phorans present us with a remarkable instance of animals totally devoid of an alimentary canal. They assimilate nutritive material by means of the tentacles (or by means of a solitary tentacle).
In order to accumulate food particles in the intertentacular lumen, by means of filtration of the water, it is not absolutely necessary for the animal to extrude the entire tentacular crown; it suffices if the distal portion only is thrust outside the tube. In Siboglinum, which has only a single tentacle, the latter is probably used to select particles from the superficial mud, “exploring’—as it were—the surrounding region, with the aid of its tentacle. Apparently the tentacle can be coiled, in the manner of a corkscrew, so as to invest a quantity of food-particles; after that, it is withdrawn into the tube, where the food is digested. It is possible that all Pogonophora retreat into the tube, from time to time, so as to digest the food accumulated in the tentacular apparatus. In the female, however, once the eggs have been deposited in the upper section of the tube, the animal must of necessity be content to remain in the lower part of the tube throughout all that interval of time during which the embryonic development proceeds.
Abbreviations: ci, glandular cingulum; da, anterior group of denticulations; f, keel of frenulum; gt, tubiparous glands (i.e., the glands which secrete the tube), visible through the integument. Other abbreviations as in Figure 1.
These inferences, nonetheless, must be regarded as tentative, for we still lack observations based on living animals.
From New Zealand coasts four species of Pogonophora have been recorded: Siboglinum vinculatum, S. tenue, S. variabile and S. bogorovi. All these species were collected by G. M. Belyaev, A. I. Savilov and Z. A. Filatova. during the operations of the Russian research vessel Vitiaz, belonging to the Oceanographic Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the U.S.S.R. The Vitiaz worked off New Zealand in 1958, and also visited Wellington at that time.
The genus Siboglinum, to which these species belong, is included in the order Athecanephria (family Siboglinidae), and it is also the most widely distributed genus. Numerous species belonging to it are distributed in all parts of the world's oceans. The most distinctive feature of Siboglinum is the presence in all its species of only a single tentacle—though this, however, reaches a very great length. It is often found to be twisted into a tightly coiled corkscrew-shaped spiral, and it usually bears either one or two rows of delicate pinnules (or villi), though these may be wanting from a number of species. The protosoma is demarcated from the mesosoma by a distinct furrow. In some species there is a more or less complete glandular girdle, situated just posterior to the cuticular frenulum (see figures). This glandular girdle, or cingulum (labelled ci in the figures), sometimes extends in the form of two elongate ventrolateral glandular bands, which may reach so far back as the boundary of the mesosoma. The attachment papillae (labelled pa) on the anterior portion of the metasoma have no cuticular platelets. In Siboglinum the tube, as a rule, is annulated, and greyish, brown or brownish in colour.
The pogonophoran fauna of the waters around the islands of New Zealand is, of course, by no means exhausted merely by enumerating four species of Siboglinum. Other species are probably living off New Zealand, including undescribed forms representative of other genera and families.
With the deepest sincerity we wish New Zealand zoologists “Good luck!’ in the study of these pogonophorans.
Abbreviations: sc, dorsal glandular shield; v, ventral papilla. Other abbreviations as in preceding figures.
Siboglinum collected by the Vifiaz off New Zealand in 1958.
As this issue goes to press Dr. editor
Drwas a senior lecturer in Chemistry at the University of Otago who began to study New Zealand lichens as a source of organic compounds and thus became deeply interested in their faxonomy. At the time of his death in a car accident, in June, 1961, he was thirty-eight years of age and was publishing a series of papers entitled ‘Studies on New Zealand Lichens’ (Trans. Roy. Soc. N.Z., vol. 88). He left several manuscripts which were substantially complete and these are now being printed, though they lack the final revision intended by their author.James Murray
This key is one of
James Murray 's posthumous papers. It is much more comprehensive than our earlier keys by Allan (Tuatara II, 15-21, 1949; IV, 59-62, 1951), but the author still regarded it as tentative and uneven in quality, and had doubts about certain sections which we have not, of course, attempted to resolve. We are grateful to Dr. G. A. M. Scott, of the Botany Department, University of Otago, for carefully checking typescript and proofs and for completing and illustrating the glossary. Dr. Scott's additions are marked with an asterisk and his doubts by “(probably)’.Mrs. Murray has generously presented his large lichen herbarium, his valuable reprint collection and all his manuscripts, including the original draft of this key, to the University of Otago.
The keys to families and genera are based largely on the system used by Zahlbruckner in Engler and Prantl Die Naturlichen Pflanzenfamilicn, Vol. 8 (1926), and in Catalogus lichenum universalis, Vol. I-X (1922-40).
Although the lichen genera are mostly clearly defined, the families are often an unsatisfactory assemblage of genera and I have taken many of them in a sense different from that of Zahlbruckner. The key to genera has been constructed to include, as far as possible, sterile material. It was impossible to do this with the key to families.
Principal differences from Zahlbruckner (1926): Pyrenotham niaceae, Phyllopsoraceae. Byssolomaceae, Coenogoniaceae and Trypetheliaceae are eliminated as families. Roccellaceae is omitted from the New Zealand list with the transfer of Sagendium to the Lecanactidaceae. Opegraphidaceae, Stereocaulaceae, Clathrinaceae, Placynthiaceae and Candelariaceae are here regarded as autonomous families.
Additions by G. A. M. Scott. * * * * *
acicular—needle-shapedadnate (of apothecium)—see fig. 1. c.f. sessile and innatealgal layer—see fig. 11angiocarpous—belonging to the Angiocarpineae (see Key to Families)apothecium—open fruit (see figs. 1 to 3)arachnoid—of loose, net-like structureareolate (of thallus)—divided into small areas usually separated by cracksascocarp—the fruiting body of an Ascolichen (i.e. of all the genera included in these keys)ascohymenial—with the asci arising, along with paraphyses, from an ascogenous layer (hypothecium). Asci usually ± clavate (see fig. 6)ascolocular—with the asci arranged at different levels, arising from a base of paraphysoid filaments (q.v.); true ascogenous layer absent and no true paraphyses. Usually asci are pyriform and spores thin-walled (see fig. 4)ascus—the elongate membranous sac enclosing the sporesaspicilioid (of apothecium)—lecanorine, but innate at least when young (probably)
Plate 1
1. Adnate apothecium (L.S.). 2. Innate or immersed apothecium (L.S.). 3. Sessile apothecium (L.S.). 4. Portion of ascolocular fruit (L.S.) with asci borne on paraphysoid filaments. 5. Lenticular spore. 6. Portion of ascohymenial fruit (L.S.) with asci and paraphyses borne on hypothecium. 7. Muriform spore. 8. Placodioid thallus. 9. Polarilocular spore. 10. Podetium (L.S.). 11. Thallus (L.S.) showing a. cortex, b. algal layer, c. medulla, and d. hypothallus. 12. Pseudopodetium (L.S.). 13. L.S. lower surface of thallus showing cyphella. 14. Perithecium (L.S.) showing e. involucrellum. 15. L.S. lower surface of thallus showing pseudocyphella. 16. Lecideine apothecium (L.S.). 17. Lecanotine apothecium (L.S.).
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biatorine (of apothecium)—lecideine, waxy not carbonaceous apothecium; excipulum palebyssoid—composed of a loose mat of hyphae like felt or cotton woolC±—giving or not giving colour reaction with calcium hypochlorite solutioncarbonaceous—black and brittlecephalodium—variously shaped excrescence of the surface of the thallus usually containing blue-green algae often of a different sort to that throughout the thallus. Usually dark.cerebriform—shaped and involuted like a brainchrondroid—of ± conglutinate. horny, close packed, very thick-walled hyphaeclavate—club-shapedcochleate—spirally twisted like a shellconglutinate—gelatinous and more or less fusedcortex—see fig. 11.corticate—possessing a cortex (opp. ecorticate)corticolous—growing on barkcrateriform—elevated like the rim of a volcanic cratercrustose—thallus forming a crust closely adhering to and usually partly incorporated into the substratumcyphella—a break in the cortex exposing the medulla, but corticate (see fig. 13)decomposed (of cortex)—composed of gelatinous and there fore indistinct hyphaedeterminate—crustose, but of more or less radiately lobed circumferenceecorticate—see corticateeffigurate (of thallus)—having a distinct formeffuse (of thallus)—crustose, without clearly defined margin (opp. determinate)endobasidial fulcrum—branched, spore-producing, hyphae within a pycnidium where all cells of the hyphae (fulcra) can produce sporesepithecium—more or less coloured or granular layer formed by the tips of paraphyses (= epithecial layer)erhizinose—lack rhizinae (q.v.)esorediate—lacking soredia (q.v.)espinulose—lacking spinesexcipulum-= proper margin (q.v.)exobasidial fulcrum—branched, spore-producing, hyphae within a pycnidium where the spores are produced only at the tips of the hyphae (fulcra)
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
fibrous (of cortex)—composed of filaments lying parallel to the thallus surfacefoliicolous—epiphytic on leavesfoliose—thallus leaf-like (c.f. fruticose and squamulose)fovea—a pitfruticose—an erect or pendulous, “shrubby’ growth form with relatively narrow branches, organised radially internallyfusiform (of spores)—narrowed at both endsgyrae—circularly arranged folds or furrows (adj. gyrose)halonate (of spores)—with a thin outer covering or episporeheteromerous—structure of thallus differentiated into medulla and algal layer (opp. homoeomerous)homoeomerous—see heteromeroushyaline—transparent and colourlesshypothallus—basal layer of lichen thallus, composed of fungal filaments only (see fig. 11)hypothecium—see ascohymenialI±—giving or not giving a blue or red colouration with aqueous iodine solution (usually on medulla)immarginate—lacking a margininnate (of apothecium)—sunk in the thallus (see fig. 2) (also = immersed)involucrellum—a thickened outer wall of a perithecium; sometimes confined to the apical portion, and usually brown or black (see fig. 14)isidium—small coral-like outgrowth of the upper surface of the thallus (adj. isidiose)K±—giving or not giving a colour reaction (usually red, yellow, or violet) with KOH solutionlecanorine (of apothecium)—margin contains algae; cortex continuous with that of the thallus; some medulla usually present in margin (see fig. 17)lecideine (of apthoecium)—with excipulum only, no algae (see fig. 16)lenticular (of spores)—see fig. 5lentiform—lens shapedlobulate—divided into, or provided with, small lobesmazedium (or mazaedium)—loose powdery more or less coherent mass of spores formed by early disappearance of ascus wallsmedulla—see fig. 11muriform (of spores)—with longitudinal as well as transverse septa (see fig. 7)paraphyses (in ascocarp)—sterile, usually septate, simple or sparsely branched filaments all rising to the same level, often expanded at the ends
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paraphysoid filament—branched anastomosing hyphae forming hymenium of ascolocular lichens (q.v.); ends not thickened, and ending at different levels. Sometimes hardly differentiated from thallus hyphaeperithecium—fruit enclosed by fungal tissue, opening by pore (see fig. 14)pertusarioid (of apothecia)—embedded in warts on the thallus, as in Pertusaria (probably)placodioid—crustose but of more or less radiately lobed circumference (see fig. 8)plectenchyma—cellular structure formed by fusion of thin-walled hyphae (= pseudoplectenchyma)podetiiform—having an erect, podetium-like structurepodetium—an erect structure formed by extension of hypothecium (see fig. 10)polarilocular (of spores)—cells joined by canal (see fig. 9), (also polaribilocular)proper margin—a rim round the apothecium, similar in colour and texture to the disc, and composed of fungal hyphae only (see lecideine and fig. 16)prosoplectenchyma—as plectenchyma but cell walls fairly thick and lumen irregularpseudocyphella—a break in the cortex exposing the medulla, but having no corticate rim (c.f. cyphella and see fig. 15)pseudopodetium—structure formed by medulla or algal layer and cortex (see fig. 12)pseudoseptate—± equivalent to polarilocular (q.v.)punctiform—the size and shape of a full-stop (.)pycnidium—rounded tubercle on thallus containing minute “spores’pyrenocarp—a perithecium (q.v.)pyriform—pear-shapedrhizine (rhizina)—a root-like strand from the under surface of the thallus (pl. rhizines, rhizinae)rimose (of thallus)—divided by clefts into areolaesessile (of apothecium)—see fig. 3soralium—an individual area of soredia (q.v.)soredia—granular or powdery masses of algae and fungi (adj. sorediate)squamulose—thallus of small squamules, appressed or raised, and usually without lower cortexstroma—a special receptacle sunk in the thallusthalline margin—a rim round the apothecium similar in construction to the thallus, continuous with it and including algal cells (see lecanorine and fig. 17)
(To be continued)
The harvestmen (Order Opiliones) are often confused with the spiders (Order Araneae). Unfortunately the misleading name “harvest spiders’ is often used for them, based on the very superficial likeness they have to spiders. A number of simple characters will immediately separate a spider from a harvestman.
Harvestmen do not use silk and therefore spinnerets are absent. The cephalothorax and the abdomen of a spider are joined by a thin waist and the abdomen (except in a few extremely rare overseas forms) is not segmented. A harvestman is always characterised by a broadly oval body without any constriction and the abdominal, and often thoracic, segmentation is clearly visible. This segmentation also differentiates the small harvestmen, particularly the S.O. Cyphophthalmi from the mites.
The Order Opiliones is divided into three sub-orders—Cyphophthalmi (mite-like harvestmen), Palpatores (longlegged harvestmen), and Laniatores (shortlegged harvestmen), all of which are abundantly represented in New Zealand. Generally speaking they are found in forest although a few species, particularly the Palpatores, are also found in grassland and sub-alpine areas and in the South Island among the shingle banks of the larger East Coast rivers. The Northern Hemisphere Phalangium opilio is the commonest species found in open country and in gardens throughout New Zealand but this species has never been found in native bush.
The systematic analysis of the New Zealand harvestmen has brought to light a number of interesting features which need further investigation, probably the most interesting of which is polymorphism. Most of the New Zealand Palpatores (and also those of Australia and South Africa) are characterised by an extraordinary difference in appearance between the male and female. The males are usually black, the carapace is hard and the chelicerae are enormously developed, while the females are soft-bodied, brownish animals with short inconspicuous chelicerae. It appears that the male chelicerae in a single species may vary considerably in size and form but whether this variation is of a graded nature or polymorphic has yet to be established. It is, however, clear that in the Laniatores
Laniatores but it seems probable that a multiple sex chromosome mechanism is present as is commonly found in other arachnids.
Certainly the detailed study of polymorphism in the New Zealand harvestmen would be a most fascinating field.
The key has been constructed as far as possible to lead the user through the major taxonomic divisions to genera. In some of the larger genera, particularly Nuncia, it may be advisable to refer directly at this stage to The New Zealand Harvestmen (Forster 1954). In order to identify certain species it is necessary to examine the male genitalia.
The removal of the genitalia is a simple procedure using two needles. If slight pressure is put on the base of the operculum it will lift. enabling the second needle to be inserted into the cavity. This needle is then used to gently cut down one side from the opening to expose the genitalia which can then be lifted out.
In many cases the characters used in the key to separate species are secondary sexual ones possessed only by males and therefore it is not possible to identify females of these species from the key, which should however lead the user to the correct genus.
A number of species were described by Hogg (1909, 1920). Loman (1902). Phillipps and Grimmett (1932), Pocock (1903), Roewer (1931) and Simon (1899). These are indicated in the key, and the relevant bibliography is given in The New Zealand Harvestmen (Forster, 1954). All species not otherwise indicated are attributable to Forster.
Mite-like harvestmen with scent glands opening from a prominent conical tubercle on the cephalothoracic carapace. Eye absent in New Zealand species. Genital opening without an operculum (fig. 26). Tarsus 4 of male distended with a spur on dorsal surface (fig. 16). Sub-order Not mite-like, openings of scent glands not placed on a tubercle and difficult to see. Two eyes usually placed on a median eyemound (fig. 30). Genital opening covered by an operculum. Tarsus 4 not modified.—2 Long, slender legs, pedipalp weak, leglike (fig. 7) genital operculum not hinged at base (fig. 25). Tarsi of legs 3 and 4 with a single simple claw. Body usually soft. Chelicerae of males often tremendously developed (fig. 14). Sub-order Legs relatively short and strong. Pedipalp strongly developed and armed with strong spines (fig. 5), (except family Synthetonychidae, fig. 8). Tarsi of legs 3 and 4 with either two claws or a modified single claw (figs. 18-21). Genital operculum with a definite suture at base where it is hinged (fig. 1). Body hard. Sub-order Tarsus 4 of male with single segment (fig. 17) (Genus Tarsus 4 of male with two segments (fig. 16). (Genus Ventral process present on trochanter of pedipalp (fig. 6). — 5 Ventral process absent from the trochanter of the pedipalp. — 16 Tarsal spur terminating bluntly. — 6 Tarsal spur terminating sharply. — 7 Tarsal spur one-sixth the length of tarsal segment. Tarsal spur one-third the length of tarsal segment. Posterior portion of abdomen with single median scopula. — 8 Posterior portion of abdomen with two or more scopulae. — 13 Tarsus IV elongate, at least three times as long as greatest depth. — 9 Tarsus IV pyriform, no more than twice as long as greatest depth. — 11 Length of body 3 mm. or more. — 10 Length of body less than 2.5 mm. Tergite VIII appearing as a ledge with two ovoid tubercles directed towards each other. Tergite VIII divided by a broad median V. Tarsal spur relatively short and stout. — 12 Tarsal spur long and slender. Tergite VIII when viewed from below evenly rounded on each side of a narrow median groove. Tergite VIII when viewed from below seen as a pair of pronounced tubercles bounding a broad median groove. Scopula present on the posterior margin of the anal plate. - 14 Scopula absent from the posterior margin of the anal plate. - 15 Tarsal spur long and slender; directed parallel to the tarsal segment. Proximal portion of the tarsal spur stout and erect, becoming slender distally where it is directed parallel to the tarsal segment. Tarsus IV twice as long as greatest depth; tarsal spur erect. Tarsus IV two and a half times as long as greatest depth; tarsal spur sloping forward. Anal plate entire.—17 Anal plate deeply indented posteriorly. Scopulae present on the posterior portion of the abdomen. - 18 Scopulae absent from the posterior portion of the abdomen. - 25 Tarsus IV less than two and a half times as long as greatest depth. -19 Tarsus IV more than three times as long as deep; tarsal spur present as a strong spinous process one-third the length of the tarsal segment. Tarsal spur with a rounded protuberance at the base. 20 Tarsal spur evenly conical at the base.—21 Length of body 2.0 mm. Tarsal spur long and slender.—22 Tarsal spur relatively short.—23 Tergite VIII with a broad median groove; not swollen posteriorly. Posterior portion of abdomen with well-developed lobes. Scopulae present on the posterior margin of the anal plate. - 24 Scopulae absent from the anal plate. A pair of scopulae present on the inner lateral surface of tergite VIII; tarsal spur directed parallel to the tarsal segment but bent down at the tip. Scopulae absent from the inner lateral surfaces of tergite VIII; tarsal spur short, directed obliquely forward. Tarsus IV granulated; apex of tarsal spur excavated to form a thin hood. Tarsus IV smooth; tarsal spur not excavated.—26 Dorsal ridge of basal segment of chelicera sharp and directed well back; swelling present at the base of tarsal spur. Dorsal ridge of basal segment of chelicera evenly rounded, slightly directed back; tarsal spur uniform.
Cyphophthalmi.—3Plate 1
Figs. 1, 2: Ventral and dorsal surface of a typical short-legged harvestman (Hendea). Fig. 3: Sternum typical for tribe Adaeini. Fig. 4: Sternum typical for tribe Triaenobunini. Fig. 5: Male chellcera Megalopsalis sp. (in many species the second segment is not distended). Fig. 6: Trochanter and femur of Rakaia sp. showing ventral process on trochanter. Fig. 7: Typical palp of a long-legged harvestman (S.O. Palpatores). Figs. 8, 9: Typical chelicera of short-legged harvestman.
Palpatores (the long-legged harvestmen). — 29Laniatores (the shortlegged harvestmen). 32Rakaia). — 4Neopurcellia). — 27Rakaia sorenseniRakaia sorenseni digitataRakaia unilocaRakaia magna magnaRakaia magna australisRakaia solitariaRakaia mediaRakaia media insulaPlate 2
Fig. 10: Typical palp of a short-legged harvestman (Hendea). Fig. 11: Palp family Synthetonychidae. Figs. 12-14: Male genitalia Hendea sp.
Rakaia antipodiana Hirst, 1925Rakaia pauliRakaia dorothea (Phillipps and Grimmett, 1932)Rakaia solitariaRakaia stewartiensisRakaia longitarsaRakaia denticulata denticulata Length of body 2.63 mm. Rakaia denticulata majorRakaia inerma inermaRakaia inerma stephenensisRakaia cryptaRakaia healyiRakaia lindsayiRakaia granulosaRakaia calcarobtusaRakaia calcarobtusa westlandica
Trochanter of pedipalp with a ventral process. Body very small, no more than 1.7 mm. in length. Trochanter of pedipalp without ventral process. Body no less than 2.2 mm. in length.—28 Two scopulae present, one originating from each inner margin of the posterior tergal tubercles. A single median scopula present, originating from the posterior margin of the anal plate. Relatively large harvestmen, body length not less than 6 mm. usually much bigger. Eyemound rounded, diameter less than one quarter of width of cephalothoracic carapace; pedipalps leglike, without tubercles. Family Minute, body length about 1 ½ mm. Eyemound greatly developed as wide as cephalothoracic carapace (fig. 24). Pedipalps with spinous tubercles. (Family Body rounded and soft.—31 Body flattened and hard. - 169 Undersurface of body silvery white. (An introduced European species found throughout New Zealand but not in forest.) Chelicerae of both male and female small, but male chelicera with strong erect projection on proximal surface of second segment. Undersurface of body occasionally white but never silvery white. Males with long conspicuous chelicera which may be up to four times the length of the body. Females predominantly grey or brown, chelicerae small, inconspicuous. Subfamily Palp with a spur on the distal end of the patella. Palp without spur. There are twelve species placed in these two genera. Unfortunately because sexual dimorphism was not taken into account when the recorded species were established and also because a large number of species remain undescribed no attempt has been made to key out the described ‘species’. (See Rec. Dom. Mus. 1944, 1: 183-92.)Plate 3
Fig. 15: Leg Hendea sp. Fig. 16: Metatarsus and tarsus of male Neopurcellia salmoni. Fig. 17: Metatarsus and tarsus male Rakaia antipodiana. Fig. 18: Double claw tarsus 3 and 4 fam. Phalangodidae. Fig. 19: Claw tarsus 3 and 4 sub-family Soerensenellinae. Fig. 20: Claw of tarsus 3 and 4 sub-family Triaenonychinae. Fig. 21: Claw of tarsus 3 and 4 Fam. Synthetonychidae. Fig. 22: Male genitalia Nuncia (Corinuncia) cockayni. Fig. 23: Male genitalia Nuncia (Nuncia) obesa.
Neopurcellia minutissimaNeopurcellia salmoniNeopurcellia florensisPhalangiidae.—30Acropsopilionidae.) Rare leafmould dwellers. One species. Zeopsopilio neozelandiaePhalangium opilio L.Phalangiinae.MegalopsalisPantopsalis
(To be continued)
Plate 4
Figs. 24, 25: Zeopsopilio neozealandiae. Fig. 26: Ventral surface, body of Rakaia sp. Fig. 27: Synthetonychia minuta. Fig. 28: Algidia cuspidata. Figs. 29, 30: Hendea bucculenta. Fig. 31: Nuncia (Corinuncia) nigriflava. Fig. 32: Hendeolo bullata. Fig. 33: Karamea lobata aurea.
Figure 1 gives the main features of a classification of the radially symmetrical groups of echinoderms, presented in outline at the recent meeting of ANZAAS in Sydney. A detailed exposition of the reasoning on which the classification is based will be given elsewhere (1), and a broader, but less technical, explanation has also been prepared (2). The proposals are based on the results of a study of growth gradients in post-larval stages, which have led inter alia to the isolation of surviving members of several groups hitherto known only from Palaeozoic fossils, namely Somasteroidea (3, 4, 5), Platyasterida (1), and Oegophiurida (1, 6). The living representatives of these ancient star-shaped echinoderms show that somasteroids, asteroids and ophiuroids are closely interrelated, all, for example, having caeca of the gut running far out into the arms, and the reproductive organs arranged serially along the arms. All the star-shaped groups can be demonstrated to have much closer affinities with the crinoids than hitherto supposed. They also show that the customary grouping of echinoids, holothurians and sea-stars in one subphylum ‘Eleutherozoa’ is unacceptable, for the assemblage is polyphyletic, and the characters supposed to unite the assemblage occur in fact only in demonstrably late asteroids and demonstrably early echinoids.
To express these conclusions, a revised classification is needed, from which ‘Eleutherozoa’ will disappear as a formal taxon. Its place will be taken instead by two distinct subphyla, the Asterozoa and the Echinozoa. The subphylum Asterozoa comprises so uniform an assemblage that all its members may be referred to a single class, for which the old name Stelleroidea is available. This class is regarded as comprising three subclasses, the Somasteroidea. Asteroidea and Ophiuroidea, between which no hard-and-fast lines can now be drawn, for they intergrade. The oldest members of the Asterozoa are the Somasteroidea, characterised by dominant pinnate growth axes, apparently inherited from crinoid-like ancestors, provisionally identified with biserial crinoids. In the later Asterozoa the pinnate gradients are gradually replaced by longitudinal adradial growth axes, leading to the condition seen in modern asteroids and ophiuroids.
Figure 1
The other subphylum, the Echinozoa, comprises more diverse groups, among which it is at present convenient to recognise three classes, the Echinoidea, Holothuroidea and Ophiocistioidea, though the exact relationship of the latter fossil group is uncertain. All Echinozoa exhibit dominant meridional growth patterns, and radially divergent axes never form, nor any trace of pinnate structure. Detailed data are given in the references cited.
As the thirtieth year of the Biological Society ends, we would like to record our very warm and sincere thanks to all the people who have assisted us over the years. First to the Botany and Zoology Departments of this university, whose staff members take a continued interest in our doings, and generously give of their time and energies. Second to the speakers at our evening meetings, from whose knowledge we benefit. Third to the people who have contributed articles to this journal, and finally to past committee members on whose work the society builds each year.
We readily admit that the achievements of the society do not come entirely from our efforts alone, and so to all the people who have lent their support over the thirty years now completed, we extend our appreciation, and express our continued goodwill for the years ahead.