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Ngā Tohuwhenua Mai Te Rangi: A New Zealand Archeology in Aerial Photographs

Part 1

Part 1

Chapter 2: Settlement Patterns

1 Kawharu (1977: 34-40).

2 Anderson (1980) for southern Ngāi Tahu case.

3 De l'Horme (in de Surville, 1982:127; see quotation in chapter 7); Banks (1958: 58-60).

4 Biggs (1990: 18).

5 Archaeologists for various reasons are more interested in the oldest settlements than they are in recent settlements. Despite this, the general pattern of dates has persistently remained late in the pre-European period, i.e., closer to the time of European arrival, especially in the north.

6 Golson (1959); Davidson (1984: 219-225).

7 There is no single reference work on New Zealand landforms that stresses terrace formations of alluvial or marine origin. The standard text on landforms was edited by Soons and Selby (1982).

8 O'Keeffe (1991: 82-88).

9 Pullar (1962).

10 Soils vary in a subtle fashion over the full extent of an alluvial plain, and the changes are not always marked by distinct changes in the level of terraces.

11 K. Jones (1988a).

12 K. Jones (1988a; 1989a).

13 K. Jones (1989b: 245-249).

14 Steep' is used in an intuitive sense.

15 McGlone (1983).

16 Guthrie-Smith (1970).

Chapter 3: Pā

1 Cook (1955); Banks (1958); Kennedy (1969).

2 Cook (1955: 197-199). Note that Banks (1958: 76) does not record a double ditch.

3 In Cook (1955: 200, footnote); see also Kelly (1953).

4 They created many historic reserves incorporating pā.

5 E. Best (1927).

6 Fox (1976).

7 Golson (1959); Davidson (1984: 100-103).

8 Cook (1955: 200).

9 See also Fox (1976); Davidson (1984: 181-194).

10 Irwin (1985); Prickett (1980); 1982a; 1983; 1990); McFadgen and Williams (1991); O'Keeffe (1991); K. Jones (1989b).

11 Fox (1976: 9).

12 Davidson (1984: 56-59).

13 Using the strict archaeological definition of a site with artifi-page 279cial defensive earthworks.

14 K. Jones (1989b).

15 Compared with other regions of New Zealand such as the East Coast.

16 Prickett (1980; 1982a).

17 Groube (1970); see also contrary view of Fox (1976: 21).

18 Groube (1964); Davidson (1984: 162-170).

19 Fox (1983). E. Best (1927) also offers various figures up to 1,400 people for pā in the inland Bay of Islands.

20 Bellwood (1978).

21 Kennedy (1969); Davidson (1984: 161-163).

22 Law and Green (1972).

23 B.F. Leach (1979); Prickett (1979; 1982b); Marshall (1991).

24 Davidson (1982a: 15).

25 Pool (1977); Groube (1964); Ballara (1979).

26 Buck (1950: 138).

27 Groube (1970); Green (1967).

28 Green (1967); S. Best (1993).

29 Parry (1977: map).

30 Hall (1875: 82). The Australs are south-east.ef the Society Islands.

31 Schmidt (1993).

32 For example, E. Best (1927: 293) on Heipipi, Hawke's Bay.

Chapter 4: Horticulture

1 Other species were coconut, banana and tī, see H.M. Leach (1984: 17-32).

2 Corynocarpus laevigatas; Freycinetia baueriana, banksii (the latter genus of the same family as the tropical pandanus).

3 H.M. Leach (1984); E. Best (1925b).

4 More rarely, on the surface of the terrace.

5 E. Best (1925b: 123); Walton (1983); Fox and Cassels (1983).

6 Barber (1989).

7 K. Jones (1984a; 1988b); Walton (1983).

8 Kirch (1985: 215-231).

9 For gardening on stony soils, see H.M. Leach (1979; 1984); Bulmer (1987); K. Jones (1989a).

10 McFadgen (1980a, b).

11 My field observation.

12 H.M. Leach (1979).

13 H.M. Leach (1979: 144-157).

14 Compare the annual mean temperatures for representative coastal locations such as Wellington Airport (13.3°), Para-paraumu Airport (12.9°), Nelson Airport (12.1°), Kaikoura (12.1°), Onāwe (Banks Peninsula) (12.4°), on the one hand, and Timaru (11.2°), Ashburton (11.2°) and Oamaru Airport (10.6°) on the other (New Zealand Meteorological Service n.d.).

15 H.M. and B.F. Leach (1979); B.F. Leach (1981).

16 K. Jones and Law (1987).

17 H.M. Leach (1979).

18 K. Jones (1989c: 60).

19 Bulmer (1987).

20 H.M. Leach (1979; 1984).

21 McFadgen (1980a).

22 I. Barber (1989).

23 Johnson (1986: 163-176) distinguishes between 'modified' or 'extended natural hydraulics' and 'artificial channel hy-

draulics'.

24 The soils were a dark colour and had gravel, sand, shell and charcoal mixed in (Peters, 1975).

25 Photograph in chapter 7.

26 Yen in Nicholls (1965); Peters (1975).

27 E. Best (1916: 77-108); Golson (1959); Green (1970); Parker (1962); Fox (1974).

28 For example, K. Jones (1984a).

29 See rua kopiha, E. Best (1925b: 227).

30 Davidson (1984: 121-127).

31 For example, E. Best (1916; 1925).

32 For example, Duff (1961).

33 Davidson (1984: 121-127); K. Jones (1989b: 251-255).

34 For example, Green (1970: 12-15).

35 K. Jones and Law (1987: 86).

36 For example, K. Jones (1986).

37 K. Jones (1988b).

Chapter 5: Other Economic Activities

1 Coster (1983; 1989).

2 Photograph in Law (1982); Trotter and McCulloch (1989: 62).

3 Law (1982).

4 Cassels et al (1988).

5 Adkin (1948: 25-30,357-358); Sheppard and Walton (1983).

6 Brailsford (1981: 154-155,160-161).

7 Tau et al (1990: 40-46).

8 H.M. and B.F. Leach (1980); K. Jones (1984b).

9 Kirch (1985: 179-180).

10 Typical examples of such island areas are Samoa, parts of the Cooks, Hawaii and the isolated southerly small islands of Rapa, Easter and Pitcairn Islands.

11 G.J. Williams (1974: 143-145).

12 Teviotdale (1939: 168-169); Knight and Gathercole (1961: 133-136); Anderson (1989).

13 B.G. McFadgen (1990, pers. coram.).

14 Teviotdale (1939: 168-169).

15 H.M. Leach (1984: 20-21).

16 Knight (1966); Fankhauser (1987).

17 Sutton (1977).

Chapter 6: Nineteenth-century Fortifications

1 Belich (1986: 291-310).

2 Belich (1986: 113-116).

3 Bowden (1991: 14-22).

4 Catton (1966: 166-167).

5 Buist (1968: 166).

6 Sorrenson (1981: 174,184).

7 Chandler (1974:128 and elsewhere); Catton (1966:166-167); Pugsley (1991, pers. comm.).

8 S.P. Smith (1910a: 470-476).

9 S.P. Smith (1910a, b).

10 S.P. Smith (1910a: 224-238); Phillips (1989:176-178); Kelly (1949: 356-367).

11 For example, in Hawke's Bay by Blake-Palmer (1947).

12 Narratives of the various campaigns are in Cowan (1983); Belich (1986).

page 280

13 Sorrenson (1981: 182). The general chronology is Bay of Islands (muskets, 1845), Crimean War (first extensive use of rifles by infantry, 1853-1856) (Bowden, 1991), the Waikato campaigns (1861-1863), and the American Civil War (1861-1865) in which there was extensive use of rifles and rifle trenches.

14 Plans in Cowan (1983, Vol. 1: 34-87).

15 Cowan (1983, Vol. 1: 340-349).

16 Cowan (1983, Vol. 1: 342).

17 Cowan (1983, Vol. 1: 146-149).

18 See the map by Captain E. Brooke, R.E. (Alexander Turnbull Library negative number F29376/1/2); also a sketch corrected by Cowan (1983: Vol. 1, 343) from Brooke.

19 Brooke probably made a circuit of the defences, perhaps using a compass, and failed to close his survey line by some distance.

20 Newman (1988: 124-126).

21 Smart (1961); a qualified view is O. Wilson (1961).